Olaf II of Norway

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Olaf II Haraldsson
)
"St. Olaf" redirects here. For other uses, see St. Olaf (disambiguation).
"Olaf the Stout" redirects here. For the video game character, see The Lost Vikings.

Olaf II Haraldsson
St. Olaf
FatherHarald Grenske
MotherÅsta Gudbrandsdatter
ReligionChalcedonian Christianity

Olaf II Haraldsson (c. 995 – 29 July 1030), also Olav Haraldsson, later known as Saint Olaf and Olaf the Holy, was

canonised at Nidaros (Trondheim) by Bishop Grimketel, one year after his death in the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030. His remains were enshrined in Nidaros Cathedral, built over his burial site. His sainthood encouraged the widespread adoption of Christianity by Scandinavia's Vikings/Norsemen
.

Pope Alexander III confirmed Olaf's local canonisation in 1164, making him a recognised saint of the Catholic Church, and Olaf started to be known as Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae – eternal king of Norway. Following the Reformation, he was a commemorated historical figure among some members of the Lutheran and Anglican Communions.[2]

The saga of Olav Haraldsson and the legend of Olaf the Saint became central to a national identity. Especially during the period of romantic nationalism, Olaf was a symbol of Norwegian independence and pride. Saint Olaf is symbolised by the axe in Norway's coat of arms and Olsok (29 July) is still his day of celebration. Many Christian institutions with Scandinavian links as well as Norway's Order of St. Olav are named after him.[3]

Name

Olaf's Old Norse name is Óláfr Haraldsson [ˈoːlɑːvz̠ ˈhɑrɑldsˌson]. During his lifetime he was known as Olaf "the fat" or "the stout"[4] or simply as Olaf "the big" (Ólafr digri [ˈdiɣre]; Modern Norwegian Olav Digre).[5] He was also called Olaf 'the Lawbreaker' for his many brutal ways of converting the Norwegian populace. In Norway today,[when?] he is commonly called Olav den hellige (Bokmål; Olaf the Holy) or Heilag-Olav (Nynorsk; the Holy Olaf) in honour of his sainthood.[6]

Olaf Haraldsson had the given name Óláfr in Old Norse (etymology: Anu- "forefather", -laibaR —"heir"). Olav is the modern equivalent in Norwegian, formerly often spelt Olaf. His name in Icelandic is Ólafur [ˈouːlaːvʏr̥], in Faroese Ólavur, in Danish Olav, in Swedish Olof, and in Finnish Olavi. Olave was the traditional spelling in England, preserved in the name of medieval churches dedicated to him. Other names, such as Óláfr hinn helgi, Olavus rex, and Olaf are used interchangeably (see the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson). He is sometimes called Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae (English: "Norway's Eternal King"), a designation which goes back to the 13th century.[7]

Background

St. Olaf is attested having been born in

petty king in Vestfold,[1] whom later Icelandic sagas would describe as a great-great-grandchild of Harald Fairhair (who had unified Norway as one Kingdom, establishing a feudalist structure with the kingship far less dependent of local rulers, earls, herses and the so called petty kings). Harald Grenski died when Åsta Gudbrandsdatter was pregnant with Olaf. He was the son of Gudrød Bjørnsson, King Bjørn Farmann in Vestfold, that is, son of King Harald I Fairhair Halvdansson. Åsta later married Sigurd Syr, with whom she had other children, including Harald Hardrada, who later reigned as king of Norway.[citation needed] The petty kings of Ringerike seem to have had some claims to the High Kingship of the Commonwealth of Uppsala posing a possible threat to the royal House of Munsö under King Olof Skötkonung. The Earls of Hlaðir
and the petty kings of Hringerike had been in conflict since at least King Harald Fairhair assumed power of all of Norway.

Saga sources for Olaf Haraldsson

Many texts have information about Olaf Haraldsson.

Historia Norwegiae (c. 1160–1175) and a Latin text, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk (c. 1177–1188).[10]

Icelanders also wrote extensively about Olaf and there are several Icelandic sagas about him, including Fagrskinna (c. 1220) and Morkinskinna (c. 1225–1235). Heimskringla (c. 1225), by Snorri Sturluson, largely bases its account of Olaf on the earlier Fagrskinna. The sources seem to say that he had been raised in the Norse pagan religion, but converted to Christ early in his adulthood. The Oldest Saga of St. Olaf (c. 1200) is important to scholars for its constant use of skaldic verses, many of which are attributed to Olaf himself.[10]

Finally, many

hagiographic sources describe St. Olaf, but these focus mostly on miracles attributed to him and cannot be used to accurately recreate his life. A notable one is The Passion and the Miracles of the Blessed Olafr.[11]

Reign

A widely used account of Olaf's life is found in Heimskringla from c. 1225. Although its facts are dubious, the saga recounts Olaf's deeds as follows:

Osilians, taken by surprise, had at first agreed to Olaf's demands, but then gathered an army during the negotiations and attacked the Norwegians. Olaf nevertheless won the battle.[12]

It is said that Olaf participated alongside fellow Viking Thorkell the Tall in the siege of Canterbury in 1011.[13]

Olaf sailed to the southern coast of Finland sometime in 1008.[14][15][16] The journey resulted in the Battle at Herdaler, where Olaf and his men were ambushed by the Finns in the woods. Olaf lost many men but made it back to his boats. He ordered his ships to depart despite a rising storm. The Finns pursued them and made the same progress on land as Olaf and his men made on water. Despite these events they survived. The exact location of the battle is uncertain and the Finnish equivalent of Herdaler is unknown, but it has been suggested that it could be in Uusimaa, probably near present-day Ingå.[17]

As a teenager Olaf went to the Baltic, then to Denmark and later to England. Skaldic poetry suggests he led a successful seaborne attack that took down London Bridge, though Anglo-Saxon sources do not confirm this. This may have been in 1014, restoring London and the English throne to Æthelred the Unready and removing Cnut.[18] According to Snorri's Heimskringla, the attack happened soon after the death of Sweyn Forkbeard with the city being held by Danish forces. Snorri's account claims that Olaf assisted Æthelred in driving the Danes out of England. Olaf is also said by Snorri to have aided the sons of Æthelred after his death. Olaf is said to have won battles but been unable to assist Æthelred's sons in driving Cnut out. After this, he set his sights on Norway.

Olaf saw it as his calling to unite Norway into one kingdom, as

Richard II of Normandy. Marauding Vikings had conquered this region in 881. Richard was himself an ardent Christian, and the Normans had also previously converted to Christianity. Before leaving, Olaf was baptised in Rouen[8] in the pre-Romanesque Notre-Dame Cathedral by Richard's brother Robert the Dane
, archbishop of Normandy.

Olaf returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the five

Sarpsfossen in Østfold
county. Within a few years he had won more power than any of his predecessors on the throne had enjoyed.

Olaf annihilated the petty kings of the south, subdued the aristocracy, asserted his

Ingegerd, though without Olof's approval. In 1019 Olaf married Astrid Olofsdotter, King Olof's illegitimate daughter and the half-sister of his former fiancée. The union produced a daughter, Wulfhild, who married Ordulf, Duke of Saxony in 1042.[20]

Olaf's success was short-lived. In 1026 he lost the

Håkon Eiriksson, was lost at sea and Olaf seized the opportunity to win back the kingdom. Given military and logistical support by the Swedish king Anund Jacob he tried to bypass the formidable "Øresundfleet" of the Danish king by traveling across the Jämtland-mountains to take Nidaros, the Norwegian capital at the time, in 1030. However, Olaf was killed in Battle of Stiklestad, where some of his own subjects from central and northern Norway took arms against him. The exact position of Saint Olaf's grave in Nidaros has been unknown since 1568, due to the effects of the Lutheran iconoclasm
in 1536–37.

King Cnut, though distracted by the task of governing England, ruled Norway for five years after Stiklestad, with his son

Magnus
('the Good') laid claim to the Norwegian throne, Svein and Ælfgifu were forced to flee.

Christianising

St. Olaf with his ax, depicted on an ivory crozier
St. Olaf with his ax on a bishop's crozier, walrus ivory, Norway c. 1375–1400

Olaf has traditionally been seen as leading the Christianisation of Norway, but most scholars of the period now believe that Olaf had little to do with the process. Olaf brought with him Grimketel, who is usually credited with helping him create episcopal sees and further organising the Norwegian church, but Grimketel was only a member of Olaf's household and no permanent sees were created until c. 1100. Also, Olaf and Grimketel most likely did not introduce new ecclesiastical laws to Norway; these were ascribed to Olaf at a later date. Olaf most likely did try to bring Christianity to the interior of Norway, where it was less prevalent.[21]

Questions have also been raised about the nature of Olaf's Christianity.

pagan references to describe romantic relationships.[10][24]

In his book The Conversion of Scandinavia, Anders Winroth argues that there was a "long process of assimilation, in which the Scandinavians adopted, one by one and over time, individual Christian practices."[25] Winroth does not claim that Olaf was not Christian, but argues that we cannot think of any Scandinavians as fully converting as portrayed in the later hagiographies or sagas. Olaf himself is portrayed in later sources as a saintly miracle-working figure to help support this quick view of conversion for Norway, but the historical Olaf did not act this way, as seen especially in the skaldic verses attributed to him.

Sainthood

Perpetual King of Norway
Venerated inCatholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism
Beatified1031 by Grimketel
Canonized1164 by Pope Alexander III
Major shrineSt. Olav's shrine, Nidaros Cathedral, Trondheim, Norway
Feast29 July
AttributesAxe
Crown
PatronageNorway, Faroe Islands, Normans

Olaf swiftly became Norway's patron saint; Bishop Grimketel performed his canonisation only a year after his death.[a] The cult of Olaf unified the country and consolidated the Christianisation of Norway. He is also recognized as the patron saint of the Faroe Islands.[27][28]

Owing to Olaf's later status as Norway's patron saint, and to his importance in later medieval historiography and in Norwegian folklore, it is difficult to assess the historical Olaf's character. Judging from the bare outlines of known historical facts, he appears to have been a fairly unsuccessful ruler, whose power was based on an alliance with the much more powerful King

Cnut the Great
; who was driven into exile when he claimed power of his own; and whose attempt at a reconquest was swiftly crushed.

This calls for an explanation of the status he gained after his death. Three factors are important: the later myth surrounding his role in the Christianisation of Norway, the various dynastic relationships among the ruling families, and the need for legitimisation in a later period.[29]

Conversion of Norway

Olaf Haraldsson and

Cnut the Great. What seems clear is that Olaf made efforts to establish a church organization on a broader scale than before, among other things by importing bishops from England, Normandy and Germany
, and that he tried to enforce Christianity in the inland areas, which had the least communication with the rest of Europe, and which economically were more strongly based on agriculture, so that the inclination to hold on to the former fertility cult was stronger than in the more diversified and expansive western parts of Norway.

Many believe Olaf introduced Christian law into Norway in 1024, based upon the

canon law
gain a greater prominence in the life and jurisdiction of the Norwegian church.

Olaf's dynasty

For various reasons, most importantly the death of King Cnut the Great in 1035 but perhaps also a certain discontent among Norwegian nobles with Danish rule in the years after Olaf's death in 1030, Olaf's illegitimate son with the concubine Alvhild,

St. Edward the Confessor at Westminster Abbey, their coronation church.[31]

Saint Olaf

Liturgical cult

Statue of St. Olav from Austevoll Church, Norway.
St. Olaf in stained-glass window at St Olave's Church, Hart Street in London
Medieval depictions of Saint Olaf adopted features from Thor. This wooden statue is from Sankt Olofs kyrka in Scania, southern Sweden.
Saint Olaf in the coat of arms of Ulvila, a medieval town in Satakunta, Finland.

Latin: Grimcillus). He was probably the only one of the missionary bishops left in the country at the time of Olaf's death, and he stood behind the translation and beatification of Olaf on 3 August 1031.[a] Grimketel later became the first bishop of Sigtuna
in Sweden.

At this time, local bishops and their people recognised and proclaimed a person a saint, and a formal

East-West Schism and a strict Roman Rite was not well-established in Scandinavia at the time. He is also venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[citation needed
]

Grimketel was later appointed bishop in the

diocese of Selsey in southeastern England. This is probably why the earliest traces of a liturgical cult of Olaf are found in England. An office, or prayer service, for Olaf is found in the so-called Leofric collectar (c. 1050), which Bishop Leofric of Exeter bequeathed in his last will and testament to Exeter Cathedral
. This English cult seems to have been short-lived.

Writing around 1070,

archbishopric of Nidaros
. It is likely that whatever formal or informal veneration of Olaf as a saint may have existed in Nidaros before that was emphasised and formalised on this occasion.

Miracles performed by St. Olaf appear for the first time in Þórarinn loftunga's skaldic poem Glælognskviða, or "Sea-Calm Poem", from about 1030–34.[32] One is the killing and throwing onto a mountain of a sea serpent still visible on the cliffside.[33][non-primary source needed] Another took place on the day of his death, when a blind man regained his sight after rubbing his eyes with hands stained with Olaf's blood.

The texts used for the liturgical celebration of St. Olaf during most of the Middle Ages were probably compiled or written by

Archbishop of Nidaros (1161–1189).[b]
The nine miracles reported in Glælognskviða form the core of the catalogue of miracles in this office.

St. Olaf was widely popular throughout Scandinavia. Numerous churches in Norway, Sweden, and Iceland were dedicated to him. His presence was even felt in Finland and many travelled from all over the Norse world in order to visit his shrine.[35] Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside the Nordic area.

Several churches in England were dedicated to him (often as St Olave); the name was presumably popular with Scandinavian immigrants.

Norwegian Church in London. It also led to the naming of St Olave's Grammar School, which was established in 1571 and was in Tooley Street until 1968, when it moved to Orpington, Kent. The village of St Olaves
in Norfolk bears the name as it is the location of the remains of a 13th-century Augustinian priory dedicated to Olaf.

St. Olaf was also, together with the

St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, which is believed to have been traditionally carried into combat by the Byzantine military forces, is believed to have been kept in this chapel in times of peace. Thus St. Olaf was also the last saint venerated by both the Western and Eastern churches before the Great Schism
.

The basilica of

papal chamberlain Baron Wilhelm Wedel-Jarlsberg. The chapel was restored in 1980 and reinaugurated by Bishop John Willem Gran, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo.[38]

In

Archbishop of Nidaros in Norway from 1452 to 1458. When he died in 1464, he was buried in front of the shrine's altar.[39] However, the shrine did not last: the Dominican Monastery was secularized in 1802 and bulldozed in 1955. Only the Rokokoportal ("Rococo Portal"), built in 1754, remains to mark the spot.[40]

In the Faroe Islands, the day of St. Olaf's death is celebrated as Ólavsøka, a nation-wide holiday.[41]

Recently the

Gudbrandsdal Valley, over Dovrefjell and down the Orkdal Valley, ending at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim
. A Pilgrim's Office in Oslo gives advice to pilgrims, and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the Cathedral, awards certificates to pilgrims when they complete their journeys. However, the relics are no longer exposed in the cathedral, and it is not sure where exactly in the cathedral crypt his remains are buried.

Folklore

For centuries, Olaf figured in folk traditions as a slayer of trolls and giants, and as a protector against malicious forces. He was said to have healing power, which attracted people to his shrine, and various springs were claimed to have sprung forth where he or his body had been.[42] Around the 12th century, folk traditions and iconography of Olaf absorbed elements of the gods Thor and Freyr from Norse mythology.[43] Like Freyr, he became associated with fertility, which led to his adoption as a patron saint by farmers, fishermen, sailors and merchants of the Hanseatic League, who turned to him for good yield and protection. From Thor, he inherited the quick temper, physical strength and merits of a giant-slayer.[44]

Popular tradition also made marks in the ecclesiastical material. Early depictions of Olaf portray him as clean-shaven, but after 1200 he appears with a red beard, which may have been absorbed from Thor. The

Norwegian folklore.[44]

In Normandy

In Normandy, Saint Olaf represents an important figure and was chosen unofficially as the patron saint of the Normans, this term mainly designating the inhabitants of continental Normandy and of channel islands, but also on a larger scale the inhabitants of the former Viking territories, namely the Scandinavian countries and, even more so, Norway. This choice can be explained by the time in which Olaf lived and when the exchanges between Normandy and the Scandinavian countries were common. There were also many kinships between the inhabitants of the brand new Norman state, as illustrated by the choice of Archbishop Robert II for the baptism of Olaf.

The normand flag with a Scandinavian cross, which recalls the Scandinavian origins of Normandy, has been baptized "Cross of Saint Olav" (or "Cross of Saint Olaf") in honor of the saint.

Baptized in Rouen by the brother of a Duke of Normandy, a church in Rouen is dedicated to Saint-Olaf.[45] The Norwegian Saint-Olaf Church was built in 1926, rue Duguay-Trouin, near the home of the Scandinavian sailors. The Norwegian Seamen's Mission wanted to build a Lutheran place of worship for visiting sailors.

A bone from Saint Olaf's arm is kept as a relic in the crypt of Rouen Cathedral.[46]

In 2014 the city and the diocese of Rouen celebrated the millennium of the baptism of Saint Olav with the Norwegian representatives of the

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway.[46]

In Normandy, July 29 is the occasion of local cultural festivals which generally highlight the Norse heritage of Normandy. In some Norman parishes, Mass is celebrated on this day in honor of the saint and to mark the historical links that unite Normandy and Scandinavia.[47]

In Epcot

Stave Church replica in the Norway Pavilion in Walt Disney World's Epcot
.

Other references to St. Olaf

Further information: List of churches dedicated to St. Olav
Saint Olaf in the coat of arms of Jomala, Åland

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Grimketel initiated the beatification of Olaf on 3 August 1031. This was before the time of the formal canonization process now in use.[26]
  2. ^ Eysteinn Erlendsson is commonly believed to have written Et Miracula Beati Olaui. This Latin hagiographical work is about the history and work of St. Olaf, with particular emphasis on his missionary work.[34]

References

  1. ^ a b "Harald Grenske (Family Links)". Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
  2. ^ "The Calendar". The Prayer Book Society of Canada. 16 October 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  3. ^ Fredrik Paasche (29 July 1930). "Olav Haraldsson". Den norske kirkes 900-årsjubileum. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  4. ^ "St Olaf II, King of Norway". British Museum.
  5. OCLC 60479029
    .
  6. ^ "St. Olaus, or Olave, King of Norway, Martyr (Butler's Lives of the Saints)". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  7. ^ Leif Inge Ree Petersen. "Olav den hellige". Store norske leksikon. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  8. ^ a b c "St. Olaf, Patron Saint of Norway", St. Olaf Catholic Church, Minneapolis, Minnesota Archived 6 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  9. JSTOR 10.5406/jenglgermphil.109.3.0281
    .
  10. ^ a b c Lindow, John. "St. Olaf and the Skalds." In: DuBois, Thomas A., ed. Sanctity in the North. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008. 103–27.
  11. ^ Kunin, Devra, trans. A History of Norway and The Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Olafr. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 2011.
  12. ^ "Saaremaa in written source". Saaremaa.ee. Archived from the original on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  13. ISBN 0-8371-8128-3
    .
  14. ^ "Saga of Olaf Haraldson". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  15. ^ Gallen, Jarl (1984). Länsieurooppalaiset ja skandinaaviset Suomen esihistoriaa koskevat lähteet. Suomen väestön esihistorialliset juuret. pp. 255–56.
  16. ^ Ahola, Joonas; Frog; Tolley, Clive, eds. (2014). Fibula, Fabula, Fact: The Viking Age in Finland. Studia Fennica. p. 422.
  17. ISBN 951-9057-47-1
    ), page 78.
  18. ^ J. R. Hagland and B. Watson, 'Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge', London Archaeologist, 12 (2005), pp. 328–33.
  19. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911, p. 62.
  20. ^ Rudiger, Jan (2020). All the King's Women: Polygyny and Politics in Europe, 900–1250. Translated by Barnwell, Tim. Brill. p. 252.
  21. ^ Lund, Niels. "Scandinavia, c. 700–1066." The New Cambridge Medieval History. Ed. Rosamond McKitterick. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  22. ^ "Dead Man Converting | Christian History Magazine". Christian History Institute. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
  23. ISBN 978-87-635-0791-2
    .
  24. ^ NRK. "Olav den Hellige var en sadist". NRK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  25. ^ a b Winroth, Anders. The Conversion of Scandinavia. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
  26. ^ Delehaye 1911, p. 192.
  27. ^ "Weekly Word". weeklyword.eu.
  28. ^ "Eco-Warriors Join Whalers' Festival". 14 August 2011.
  29. ^ "Olav Haraldsson – Olav the Stout – Olav the Saint (Viking Network)". Viking.no. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  30. ^ Karen Larsen, A History of Norway (Princeton University Press: Princeton, 1948) pp. 95–101.
  31. ^ Claus Krag. "Olav 2 Haraldsson Den Hellige, Konge". Norsk biografisk leksikon. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  32. ISBN 0578101742
    .
  33. ^ Serpent image Archived 20 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ Eysteinn Erlendsson, Archbishop of Nidaros
  35. ^ Orrman, Eljas. "Church and society". In: Prehistory to 1520. Ed. Knut Helle. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  36. ^ "The AngloSaxon Chronicle". Britannia. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  37. ^ "The invention of tradition". Umbc.edu. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  38. ^ David M. Cheney (22 August 2015). "Bishop John Willem Nicolaysen Gran, O.C.S.O. Deceased". Catholic-Hierarchy. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  39. ^ (in Norwegian) Audun Dybdahl, "Henrik Kalteisen", in: Norsk biografisk leksikon [ Norwegian Biographical Dictionary ]. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  40. ^ See Harald Rausch, "Das Ende der Weißergasse", PAPOO, posted 2 February 2011 (in German), and Reinhard Schmid, "Koblenz – Dominikanerkloster", Klöster und Stifte in Rheinland-Pfalz [ Monasteries and Churches in Rhineland-Palatinate ] (in German) for more details.
  41. ^ "St. Olaf Haraldson (Catholic Encyclopedia)". Newadvent.org. 1 February 1911. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  42. ISBN 0-8240-4787-7
    .
  43. ISBN 0-520-02044-8
    .
  44. ^
    ISBN 9780195147711
    .
  45. ^ "Eglise Norvégienne". www.rouen-histoire.com. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  46. ^ a b "Le millénaire du baptême de Saint-Olav à la cathédrale de Rouen". France 3 Normandie (in French). 19 October 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  47. ^ GChapdelaine (4 June 2017). "Saint Olaf — Fraternité de l'Abbaye de La Lucerne". www.coutances.catholique.fr (in French). Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  48. ^ "Saint Olav's chapel in Spain". pilgrim.info. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008.
  49. ^ Church website; Statue of the saint from the sanctuary Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  50. ^ "St. Olaf Church, Patron of Norway Catholic Church". stolaf.cc. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  51. ^ "St Olaf Home Page". Saint Olaf Catholic Church.
  52. ^ "St. Olave's Anglican Church – Beauty and Tradition in Toronto's Bloor West Village". Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  53. ^ "St. Olaf's National School". St. Olaf's National School.

Attribution:

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Olaf II of Norway.
Olaf the Saint
Cadet branch of the Fairhair dynasty
Born: 995 Died: July 29 1030
Regnal titles
Vacant
Regency held by
Sweyn Forkbeard
 King of Norway
1015–1028 		Vacant
Regency held by
Cnut the Great
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