Sanaa
Sanaa
صَنْعَاء Ṣanʿāʾ 𐩮𐩬𐩲𐩥 | |
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AST ) |
Sanaa (
At an elevation of 2,300 metres (7,500 ft),[5] Sanaa is one of the highest capital cities in the world[citation needed] and is next to the Sarawat Mountains of Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb and Jabal Tiyal, considered to be the highest mountains in the Arabian Peninsula and one of the highest in the region. Sanaa has a population of approximately 3,292,497 (2023), making it Yemen's largest city.[6] As of 2020, the greater Sanaa urban area makes up about 10% of Yemen's total population.[7]
The Old City of Sanaa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has a distinctive architectural character, most notably expressed in its multi-story buildings decorated with geometric patterns. In the conflict that raged in 2015, explosives hit UNESCO sites in the old city.[8][9] The Al Saleh Mosque, the largest in Sanaa, is located in the southern outskirts of the city.
Sanaa has been facing a severe water crisis,[10] with water being drawn from its aquifer three times faster than it is replenished. The city is predicted to run completely out of water by around 2030, making it the first national capital in the world to do so. Access to drinking water is very limited in Sanaa, and there are problems with water quality.[11]
History
Ancient period
According to
after the latter's death.The name Sanaa is probably derived from the Sabaic root ṣnʿ, meaning "well-fortified".[15][16][17] The name is attested in old Sabaean inscriptions, mostly from the 3rd century CE, as ṣnʿw.[15] In the present day, a popular folk etymology says that the name Sanaa refers to "the excellence of its trades and crafts (perhaps the feminine form of the Arabic adjective aṣnaʿ)".[15]
The 10th-century
Al-Hamdani wrote that Sanaa was walled by the
Appropriately enough for a town whose name means "well-fortified", Sanaa appears to have been an important military center under the Sabaeans.
When King Yousef Athar (or
Islamic era
From the era of
Imam
In 1062, Sanaa was taken over by the
In 1173,
While the
Ottoman era
The
The Zaydi imams maintained their rule over Sanaa until the mid-19th century, when the Ottomans relaunched their campaign to control the region. In 1835, Ottoman troops arrived on the Yemeni coast under the guise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt's troops.[22] They did not capture Sanaa until 1872, when their troops led by Ahmed Muhtar Pasha entered the city.[21] The Ottoman Empire instituted the Tanzimat reforms throughout the lands they governed.
In Sanaa, city planning was initiated for the first time, new roads were built, and schools and hospitals were established. The reforms were rushed by the Ottomans to solidify their control of Sanaʽa to compete with an expanding Egypt, British influence in Aden and imperial Italian and French influence along the coast of Somalia, particularly in the towns of Djibouti and Berbera. The modernization reforms in Sanaa were still very limited, however.[23]
North Yemen period
In 1904, as Ottoman influence was waning in Yemen,
In the 1930s, several organizations opposing or demanding reform of the Zaydi imamate sprung up in the city, particularly Fatat al-Fulayhi, a group of various Yemeni
Ahmad began a process of gradual economic and political liberalization, but by 1961, Sanaa was witnessing major demonstrations and riots demanding quicker reform and change. Pro-republican officers in the North Yemeni military sympathetic of Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt's government and pan-Arabist policies staged a coup overthrowing the Imamate government in September 1962, a week after Ahmad's death.[23] Sanaa's role as a capital was restored afterward.
The new government's modernization projects changed the face of Sanaa: the new Tahrir Square was built on what had formerly been the former imam's palace grounds, and new buildings were constructed on the north and northwest of the city. This was accompanied by the destruction of several of the old city's gates, as well as sections of the wall around it.[25]
After the end of the civil war in 1970, Sanaa began to expand outward.
Sanaa's new areas were physically different from the quarters of the old city. Many of the Yemenis who had migrated to the Gulf states had worked in construction, where they had become well-acquainted with Western and Egyptian techniques. When they returned to Yemen, they brought those techniques with them. New construction consisted of concrete and concrete block houses with multi-lite windows and plaster decorations, laid out in a grid pattern. Their amenities, including independence from extended families and the possibility of owning a car, attracted many families from the old city, and they moved to the new districts in growing numbers. Meanwhile, the old city, with its unpaved streets, poor drainage, lack of water and sewer systems, and litter (from use of manufactured products, which was becoming increasingly common), was becoming increasingly unattractive to residents. Disaster struck in the late 1970s — water pipes were laid to bring water into the old city, but there was no way to pipe it out, resulting in huge amounts of groundwater building up in the old city. This destabilized building foundations and led to many houses collapsing.[25]
21st century
Following the
Sanaa was chosen as the 2004
In 2011, Sanaa, as the Yemeni capital, was the centre of the
On May 21, 2012, Sanaa was
On January 23, 2013, a drone strike near Al-Masna'ah village killed two civilians, according to a report[27] issued by Radhya Al-Mutawakel and Abdulrasheed Al-Faqih and Open Societies Foundations.
Houthi control (2014–present)
On September 21, 2014, during the
On June 12, 2015,
On October 8, 2016,
In May 2017, according to the International Committee of the Red Cross, an outbreak of cholera killed 115 people and left 8,500 ill.[30] In late 2017, another Battle of Sanaa broke out between the Houthis and forces loyal to former President Saleh, who was killed.
On May 17, 2022, the first commercial flight in six years took off from Sanaa International Airport as part of a UN-brokered 60-day truce agreement struck between the Houthis and the internationally-recognized government the prior month.[31]
Geography and climate
Natural setting
Sanaa is located on a plain of the same name, the Haql Sanaa, which is over 2,200m above sea level. The plain is roughly 50–60 km long north–south and about 25 km wide, east–west, in the area north of Sanaa, and somewhat narrower further south. To the east and west, the Sanaa plain is bordered by cliffs and
Sanaa itself is located at the narrowest part of the plain, nestled between
Jabal Nuqum rises about 500 metres (1,600 feet) above Sanaa.
Parts of the Sanaa plain have signs of relatively recent volcanic activity (geologically speaking), with volcanic cones and lava fields. One such area is located to the north, on the road to the
Architecture
Sanaa's Old City is renowned for its tower houses, which are typically built from stone and fired brick and can reach up to 8 stories in height. The doors and windows feature are decorated with plaster openings. They traditionally housed a single extended patrilineal family, with new floors being built as sons married and had children of their own. (New buildings would also sometimes be built on adjacent land.) The ground floor was typically used as grain storage and for housing animals. Most families no longer keep either animals or grain, so many homeowners set up shops on the ground floor instead. (This often leads to conflict with building inspectors, since doing so is prohibited by law.)[25] Meanwhile, the uppermost story, called the mafraj, is used as a second reception room and hosts afternoon qat chewing sessions.[15]
Tower houses continue to be built in Sanaa, often using modern materials; often they are built from concrete block with decorative "veneers" of brick and stone.[25] These "neo-traditional" tower houses are found in newer districts as well as the old city.[26]
Most new residences built in Sanaa, though, use newer styles of architecture. The most common are "new villas", which are low-rise houses with fenced yards; they are especially common in the southern and western parts of the city. The other main archetype are smaller, "Egyptian-style" houses, which are usually built with reinforced concrete. These are most commonly found in the northern and eastern parts of Sanaa.[26]
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Several tower houses in Sanaa
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Tower houses
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Closer view of a single tower house, showing the plaster decoration
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Street scene in the 1960s, showing newer concrete-based architecture
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Sanaa Archaeological Library, showing a mix of styles: the windows evoke those of old tower houses, while the materials and structure are essentially modern.
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Contemporary monument in Sanaa, as-Sab'in street
Cityscape
Generally, Sanaʽa is divided into two parts: the Old City District ("al-Qadeemah") and the new city ("al-Jadid.") The former is much smaller and retains the city's ancient heritage and mercantile way-of-living while the latter is an urban sprawl with many suburbs and modern buildings. The newer parts of the city were largely developed in the 1960s and onward when Sanaʽa was chosen as the republican capital.[24]
In recent decades, Sanaa has grown into a multipolar city, with various districts and suburbs serving as hubs of commercial, industrial, and social activity. Their development has generally been unplanned by central authorities. Many of them were initially set up by new arrivals from rural areas. Increasing land prices and commercial rents in the central city has also pushed many residents and commercial establishment outwards, towards these new hubs.
Neighbourhoods
Old City
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Criteria | Cultural: (iv)(v)(vi) |
Reference | 385 |
Inscription | 1986 (10th Session) |
Endangered | 2015– |
Coordinates | 15°21′20″N 44°12′29″E / 15.35556°N 44.20806°E |
The
British writer Jonathan Raban visited in the 1970s and described the city as fortress-like, its architecture and layout resembling a labyrinth", further noting "It was like stepping out into the middle of a vast pop-up picture book. Away from the street, the whole city turned into a maze of another kind, a dense, jumbled alphabet of signs and symbols."[citation needed]
One of the most popular attractions is Suq al-Milh (Salt Market), where it is possible to buy salt along with bread, spices, raisins, cotton, copper, pottery, silverware, and antiques. The 7th-century
A commercial area of the Old City is known as Al Madina where development is proceeding rapidly. In addition to three large hotels, there are numerous stores and restaurants. The area also contains three parks and the President's palace. The National Museum of Yemen is located here.
Traditionally, the Old City was composed of a number of quarters (hara), generally centred on an endowed complex containing a mosque, a
One of these quarters was Qa' al-Yahud, or the Jewish Quarter, located to the Western side of the old city. It had a distinct architecture that was defined by buildings with larger floor plans, houses which had the main socializing room elevated to the top of the house, and tended to be shorter than the standard houses of the city.[35]
Al-Tahrir
Al-Tahrir was designed as the new urban and economic hub of Sanaa during the 1960s. It is still the symbolic centre of the city, but economic activity here is relatively low. In the 21st century, development here pivoted more towards making it a civic and recreational centre.[26]
Bi'r al-Azab
An old Ottoman and Jewish quarter of Sanaa[26] located to the west of the old city, Bi'r al-Azab was first mentioned in historical sources in 1627 (1036 AH), in the Ghayat al-amanni of Yahya ibn al-Husayn.[33]
As part of central Sanaa, Bi'r al-Azab was one of the areas where new development was first concentrated during the 1970s. Today, it is mostly a residential and administrative district, with embassies, the office of the Prime Minister, and the chamber of deputies being located here.[26]
Others
The area roughly between the two main circular roads around the city (Ring Road and Sittin) is extremely active, with a high population density and very busy souks. These areas are crossed by major commercial thoroughfares such as al-Zubayri and
The southwestern area on both sides of Haddah Road is a generally affluent area with relatively more reliable access to utilities like water and sanitation. Many residents originally moved here from Aden after Yemeni reunification in 1990. Since the 1990s, there has been development of high-rise buildings in this area.[26]
Administration
In 1983, as Sanaa experienced an explosion in population, the city was made into a governorate of its own, called Amanat al-Asimah ("the Capital's Secretariat"), by Presidential Decree No. 13.[7] This governorate was then subdivided into nine districts in 2001, by Presidential Decree No. 2; a tenth district, Bani Al Harith District, was added within the same year.[7] However, the exact legal status of the new Amanat al-Asimah Governorate, and the hierarchy of administrative authority, was never made clear.[7]
Since then, the city of Sanaa encompasses the following districts:
- Old City District
- Al Wahdah District
- As Sabain District
- Assafi'yah District
- At Tahrir District
- Ath'thaorah District
- Az'zal District
- Bani Al Harith District
- Ma'ain District
- Shu'aub District
Climate
Sanaʽa features a cold
The city seldom experiences extreme heat or cold. Some areas around the city, however, can see temperatures fall to around −9 °C (16 °F) or −7 °C (19 °F) during winter. Frost usually occurs in the early winter mornings, and there is a slight wind chill in the city at elevated areas that causes the cold mornings to be bitter, including low humidity. The sun warms the city to the high 20–22 °C (68–72 °F) during the noontime but it drops drastically after nightfall to a low around 3–4 °C (37–39 °F).
The city experiences many microclimates from district to district because of its location in the Sanaa basin and uneven elevations throughout the city. Summers are warm and it can cool swiftly at night, especially after rainfall. Sanaa receives almost all of its annual rainfall from April to August. Rainfall amounts vary from year to year; some years could see 500–600 mm (20–24 inches) of rainfall, while others barely get 150 mm (5.9 inches). High temperatures have increased slightly during the summer over the past few years, while low temperatures and winter temperatures have also risen over the same period.
Climate data for Sanaa, Yemen | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 30 (86) |
31 (88) |
32 (90) |
32 (90) |
37 (99) |
39 (102) |
41 (106) |
38 (100) |
40 (104) |
34 (93) |
33 (91) |
31 (88) |
41 (106) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 22.3 (72.1) |
24.7 (76.5) |
25.6 (78.1) |
24.8 (76.6) |
25.7 (78.3) |
28.2 (82.8) |
26.6 (79.9) |
25.9 (78.6) |
25.1 (77.2) |
22.2 (72.0) |
20.3 (68.5) |
20.5 (68.9) |
24.3 (75.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.6 (54.7) |
14.1 (57.4) |
16.3 (61.3) |
16.6 (61.9) |
18.0 (64.4) |
19.3 (66.7) |
20.0 (68.0) |
19.6 (67.3) |
17.8 (64.0) |
15.0 (59.0) |
12.9 (55.2) |
12.4 (54.3) |
16.2 (61.2) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.0 (37.4) |
3.6 (38.5) |
7.0 (44.6) |
8.5 (47.3) |
10.4 (50.7) |
10.5 (50.9) |
13.4 (56.1) |
13.3 (55.9) |
10.6 (51.1) |
7.9 (46.2) |
5.5 (41.9) |
4.4 (39.9) |
8.2 (46.7) |
Record low °C (°F) | −4 (25) |
−1 (30) |
1 (34) |
4 (39) |
1 (34) |
9 (48) |
5 (41) |
0 (32) |
3 (37) |
1 (34) |
−1 (30) |
−2 (28) |
−4 (25) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 5 (0.2) |
5 (0.2) |
17 (0.7) |
48 (1.9) |
29 (1.1) |
6 (0.2) |
50 (2.0) |
77 (3.0) |
13 (0.5) |
2 (0.1) |
8 (0.3) |
5 (0.2) |
265 (10.4) |
Average rainy days | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 41 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
39.3 | 35.8 | 38.5 | 41.1 | 36.0 | 27.2 | 40.1 | 45.5 | 29.9 | 29.0 | 38.1 | 37.7 | 36.5 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 |
Source 1: Climate-Data.org (altitude: 2259m),[36] Weather2Travel (rainy days, sunshine)[37] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Climatebase.ru (humidity),[38] Voodoo Skies (records)[39] |
Culture
Music
Sanaa has a rich musical tradition and is particularly renowned for the musical style called al-Ghina al-San'ani (
The basic format consists of a singer accompanied by two instrumentalists, one playing the
In the earliest days of the recording industry in Yemen, from 1938 into the 1940s, Sanaani music was the dominant genre among Yemenis who could afford to buy records and phonographs (primarily in Aden).[41] As prices fell, Sanaani-style records became increasingly popular among the middle class, but at the same time it began to encounter competition from other genres, including Western and Indian music as well as music from other Arab countries.[41] The earliest Sanaani recording stars generally came from wealthy religious families.[41] The most popular was 'Ali Abu Bakr Ba Sharahil, who recorded for Odeon Records; other popular artists included Muhammad and Ibrahim al-Mas, Ahmad 'Awad al-Jarrash, and Muhammad 'Abd al-Rahman al-Makkawi.[41]
Theatre
Yemen has a rich, lively tradition of theatre going back at least a century. In Sanaa, most performances take place at the Cultural Center[42] (Markaz al-Thaqafi),[43] which was originally designed as an auditorium instead of a theatre. It "possesses only the most basic of lighting and sound equipment, and the smallest of wings"[42] and lacks space to store props or backdrops. Yet despite the scarce resources, "dramatic talent and creativity abound"[42] and productions draw large, enthusiastic crowds who react on the action onstage with vigor: "uproarious laughter at clever lines, and deafening cheers for the victorious hero, but also occasional shouts of disagreement, cries of shock when an actor or actress breaks a taboo or expresses a controversial opinion."[42] Katherine Hennessey draws attention to the fact that Yemeni women act alongside men onstage, write and direct plays (Nargis Abbad being one of the most popular), and make up a significant part of audiences, often bringing their children with them. She contrasts all these factors to the other countries on the Arabian peninsula: places like Qatar or Saudi Arabia have extensive resources and fancier facilities, but not much of a theatrical tradition, and casts and audiences are often segregated by gender.[42]
Since Yemeni reunification in the early 1990s, the government has sponsored annual national theatre festivals, typically scheduled to coincide with World Theatre Day on March 27. In the 21st century, the actors and directors have increasingly come from Sanaa.[42] In 2012, in addition to the festival, there was a national theatre competition, sponsored by Equal Access Yemen and Future Partners for Development, featuring theatre troupes from around the country. It had two rounds; the first was held in six different governorates, and the second was held in Sanaa.[43]
Sanaa's theatre scene was disrupted by war and famine in the 2010s; additionally, since the Houthis gained control of the city in 2014, they "have imposed strict rules on dress, gender segregation, and entertainment in the capital." In December 2020, however, a performance was held in Sanaa by one troupe, in an effort to offer respite and entertainment to people in a city suffering from the civil war and the ongoing
Sports
Zoo
Like
Qat
There is a daily practice of Qat chewing which exists within the city of Sana'a. Qat is a type of plant with stimulant like qualities. This daily practice occurs in a mafraj, which is room designated for Qat chewing. Qat comes in three different varieties, Ahmar, Abiad, and Azraq, (translated to red white and blue) with Ahmar being considered of the highest quality, and Abiad being considered the weakest. According to a foreign resident the Qat from the North of Sana'a is the most prized of the Qat grown locally. This daily chewing tradition starts in the Qat market, with the leaves used for a particular day being bought day of use.[47]
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
---|---|---|
1911 | 18,000[48] | — |
1921 | 25,000[49] | +3.34% |
1931 | 25,000 | +0.00% |
1940 | 80,000 | +13.80% |
1963 | 100,000 | +0.97% |
1965 | 110,000 | +4.88% |
1975 | 134,600[50] | +2.04% |
1981 | 280,000 | +12.98% |
1986 | 427,505 | +8.83% |
1994 | 954,448 | +10.56% |
2001 | 1,590,624 | +7.57% |
2004 | 1,748,000[51] | +3.19% |
2005 | 1,937,451[21] | +10.84% |
2023 | 3,769,615[52] | +3.77% |
The city's population growth soared from the 1960s onward as a result of mass rural migration to the city in search of employment and improved standard of living.[24] Sanaʽa is the fastest-growing capital city in the world with a growth rate of 7%,[53] while the growth rate of the nation as a whole is 3.2%.[54] About 10% of the population resides in the Old City, while the remainder lives in the outside districts.[24] The three large administrative districts in increasing population size are Shu'ub (شعوب), Ma'in (معيت), and As-sab'in (السبعين), with populations of about 500,000, 630,000, and 730,000 respectively.[52]
The population in Sanaa is very young, with almost 60% of people in the Amanat al-Asimah Governorate being under 18 years old.[7] The population also skews slightly male, with a male:female ratio of 1.10[52]
A majority of Sanaa's inhabitants practice
Social class
Before the revolution of 1962, Sanaani society was divided into a fairly well-defined hierarchy of social classes.[56] There were five major groups: ranked from highest to lowest, they were the sayyids, the qadis, the mansibs (plural: manasib), the Bani Khumis (also called the muzayyin), and the akhdam.[56] Since then, the system of social class has changed significantly in the context of market capitalism.[56]
At the top of the traditional social order were the sayyids, who claimed descent from Muhammad and were therefore seen as the legitimate ruling class.[56] Right below them were the qadis, who similarly claimed descent from "an original class of judges".[56] Because of their elite status, the sayyids were the main targets of the 1962 revolution, but they and the qadis continue to wield a strong cultural influence today.[56]
Below these elite groups were the manasib, whose name literally means "dignity", "rank", or "position".[56] These included artisans employed in "honourable" trades, such as metalsmiths (for gold, silver, copper, and iron), carpenters, dyers, builders and masons, plumbers, turners (i.e. lathe operators), porters, painters of inscriptions, and makers of weapons, hookahs, or mattresses.[56] Although these trades were seen as somewhat demeaning for members of the upper classes to take part in, they were still fairly respectable and in some cases sayyids or qadis would engage in them as a main source of income.[56] The manasib were generally considered to have tribal ancestry and martial connotations, and they were the ones who were mustered to defend the city when it was attacked.[56]
The Bani Khumis, literally the "sons of the fifth", were the ones who took part in trades that the three higher-ranked classes refused to work in.[56] These included cobblers, tanners, makers of leather sheaths, saddlers, brickmakers, butchers, barbers, bath attendants, coffee house proprietors, brass founders, and vegetable gardeners.[56] Below the Bani Khumis were the akhdam, the lowest social class, who were mostly street sweepers.[56]
This traditional class hierarchy began to change rapidly in the decades after the 1962 revolution.[56] Particularly during the 1970s, there was a shift towards a new social hierarchy that was based not on birthright but on wealth.[56] For example, working in commerce (such as qat merchants or café proprietors) was traditionally looked down upon by upper classes like sayyids and qabilis (i.e. tribesmen), but as it became increasingly lucrative during the 1970s, it was increasingly seen as respectable and now some members of the traditional upper classes are willing to engage in these trades.[56] (This does not extend to all profitable trades, though — butchering, for example, still has a stigma despite bringing in a fair amount of money.)[56]
This shift has been far more pronounced in Sanaa, as a big city where resources are most concentrated, than in rural areas (where old social divisions are much more strongly maintained today).[56] Some of the contributing factors to the shift included the new education system, modeled on Egypt's; widespread migration of Yemeni men to other, oil-rich Arab states; and greater integration of Yemen into the global economy.[56]
Jewish community
Jews have been present in Yemen since the 5th century BCE and form part of the historic
Economy
Historically, Sanaʽa had a
As the capital city of Yemen, nearly 40% of jobs in Sanaʽa are in the
By far the largest area of the economy, both in terms of number of businesses and in jobs, is in commerce and small services.[34] As of 2004, 58.9% of all establishments and 31.3% of all jobs in Sanaa belong to this category.[34] Another major category is general administration, which only makes up 0.8% of employers but has 18.0% of workers, making it the second largest in that regard.[34] Manufacturing is the third-largest category by both measures, with about 12% for both.[34] Sanaa also has a higher concentration of hotels and restaurants than elsewhere in the country.[34]
About 62% of jobs in Sanaa are working for private, locally owned enterprises, followed by state-owned enterprises which employ 31%.[34] Waqfs, private foreign-owned companies, and private joint ventures make up the rest in that order, with none employing more than 2%.[34]
Sanaa's economy is large compared to its population: as of 2004, it was home to only 9% of Yemen's population but 16% of the country's businesses and 22% of its formal-sector jobs.[34] The average size of a business establishment in Sanaa is small, at 3.88 employees on average; however, this is higher than the national average of 2.87 and only Aden has a higher average at 6.88 employees.[34] Between 1992 and 2006, 39% of all new formal-sector jobs in Yemen were created in Sanaa, along with 33% of new business establishments.[34] In terms of jobs created, Sanaa is ahead of all other governorates in Yemen by a factor of three.[34]
Poverty and income inequality
While Sanaa has a vibrant, diverse economy with more jobs being created than anywhere else in Yemen, it also has the highest concentration of poverty in the country.[34] It is home to 6.5% of the country's total poor population and 23% of the poor urban population.[34] About 15% of the city's population lives below the national poverty line as of 2007.[34] There are also many people living just above the poverty line that are still in a relatively precarious financial position.[34] High unemployment is another problem; by some estimates, as much as 25% of Sanaa's potential workforce is unemployed.[34]
Challenges facing local businesses
A 2005 survey of 488 Yemeni firms by the
Energy
Before the civil war, Yemen's electricity was primarily supplied by the
The Dhahban and Hizyaz substations also have generating capacity in addition to being supplied by the Ma'rib plant.[7] The Dhahban station is the main one in Sanaa; located 10 km northwest of the city, it had an original generating capacity of 20 MW, with another 30 MW installed during the 2000s, bringing the total to 50 MW.[7] The Hizyaz station consists of three power plants: the first, with a capacity of 30 MW, was completed in 2002.[7] Another 60 MW plant was added in 2004, and then in 2007 the third plant, with a capacity of 30 MW, was also completed.[7]
While most of prewar Sanaa was connected to the electrical grid, including at least partial coverage in most of the city's 35 informal settlements, access to electricity was unreliable.[7] Power outages were common, and one 2011 report suggested that electricity was only available for one hour per day.[7]
The civil war has severely impacted the energy sector in Yemen, due to several factors including damage from attacks, lack of funding for maintenance, and fuel shortages.
Prices of fuel and diesel in Yemen have risen dramatically since the start of the war; current prices are 150% of what they were in 2017.[7] The most recent crisis in Sanaa came in September 2019, leading to days-long lines at gas stations.[7] Black market prices can be three times higher than the official ones, leaving many unable to afford fuel.[7]
Education
Sanaa is relatively well educated among Yemeni cities, and much more than the country as a whole.
Each of Sanaa's districts has its own educational district, with several government schools in each one.[68]
The war in Yemen has severely affected education in Sanaa.[68] After the internationally recognized government relocated the national bank from Sanaa to Aden in 2016, it stopped paying salaries to public-sector employees in Houthi-controlled areas.[68] Many teachers quit teaching because of this, and they were replaced by inexperienced volunteers.[68]
Sanaa University was established in 1970 with the goal of preparing Yemenis to work as teachers.[69] As of 1984 it remained the only higher education institute in Yemen.[69] In that time its enrolment had grown from 68 students in 1970–71 to around 9,700 in 1983–84.[69] During its early years, Sanaa University was largely financed by Kuwait, and most professors, administrators, and teaching materials came from Kuwait as well.[69] As of the 1980s, most professors came from Ain Shams University in Cairo.[69] At that time, 10% of students at the university were female.[69] The university's academic year consists of two 18-week semesters as well as an 8-week summer session.[69] As of 1984, instruction was in Arabic in all faculties except for the Faculty of Science, where it was done in English.[69] The then-planned Faculties of Engineering and Medical Sciences were also planned to have instruction done in English.[69] As of 1984, one in five freshmen at Sanaa University went on to graduate in four years (the statistic for students who graduated after more than four years was not given).[69]
Health
As of October 2016, there are 88 health facilities in the Sanaa metro area.[7] These include 5 primary-level health units (covering 1,000–5,000 people each), 56 health centres (covering over 50,000 people each — higher than the national average of 36,340, as well as the recommended standard of 5,000–20,000 per health centre), and 19 hospitals (covering on average some 390,000 people, over twice the recommended amount of 150,000 each).[7] The hospitals have on average 6.9 beds per 10,000 people, which is slightly above the national average of 6.2 but well below the recommended minimum of 10.[7] As of 2016 there are also 25 ambulances in the city.[7] As of 2019, 77 healthcare facilities in Sanaa are supported by Health Cluster partners, including provision of outpatient consultations, medical interventions, fuel and water support, and staff training.[7]
Sanaa's healthcare providers also serve people from surrounding governorates.
The ongoing conflict has severely affected the health sector in Sanaa.[7] In 2018, the total cost of damage to the health sector in Sanaa was estimated to be between 191 million and US$233 million.[7] As of 2016, there was a ratio of 20 health care workers for every 10,000 people; this ratio had decreased to 14 by 2018, well below the World Health Organization's recommended minimum of 22 health staff per 10,000 people.[7] There are severe shortages of medicines in Sanaa, with 57 types of cancer medicines and 8 kidney dialysis medicines being commercially unavailable.[7] Those medicines that are available are subjected to large price increases.[7] On 27 April 2018, As-Sabeen Maternal Hospital was hit by an airstrike and made inoperational.[7] As of 2020, no information is available about its status.[7]
Additionally, the closure of Sanaa International Airport to commercial flights in August 2016 prevented Yemenis from traveling abroad to receive specialized medical treatment unavailable in the country.[7] Before it shut down, an estimated 7,000 Yemenis traveled through the airport to do so, including treatment for heart, kidney, and liver conditions, blood conditions, and cancer.[7]
Sanaa has been hit hard by the ongoing
In May 2020, during the
Transport and communications
Transport in Sanaa is divided by gender, with a slight majority (51%) of male commuters using public transport and a similar majority (56%) of women travelling on foot.[7] In both cases, using personally-owned cars was less prevalent than public transport (51% vs. 29% for men, and 25% vs. 20% for women).[7] Use of bicycles and motorcycles is less; only 5% of male commuters and a negligible percentage of female commuters reported using them as primary modes of transport.[7]
Public transport in Sanaa is primarily informal, with most vehicles being privately owned.
Sanaa has an extensive road network, which is where most formal investment has taken place.
Sanaa has the most
In 2017, the
Air transport
Sanaa International Airport is Yemen's main domestic and international airport, handling 80% of all air passengers in the country in 2007.[7] The airport sustained heavy damage during the ongoing conflict in Yemen,[7] and has been closed for commercial flights since August 2016.[71][7] This has prevented many Yemenis from being able to travel abroad to receive medical treatment.[7] In addition, at the start of the Saudi blockade, the Sanaa airport was completely shut down for 16 days until being reopened to humanitarian flights on the 22nd of November. A new Sanaa Airport started construction in 2008 but stopped in 2011 and has not resumed since.[71]
Yemenia, the national airline of Yemen, has its head office in Sanaa.[72]
Communications
Most of Yemen's telecommunications infrastructure is located in Sanaa, as are most of the country's telecommunications companies.[7]
The Internet was first launched in Yemen in 1996, but it was used by under 5% of the population until 2007.[7] The percentage of Yemenis using the internet nationwide has increased from 1.25% in 2006 to 26.72% in 2017.[7] In Sanaa, the main internet service provider is YemenNet, which was launched in 2002 and is the only network offering 3G services.[7]
Water and sanitation
Yemen is one of the world's most water-scarce countries, and Sanaa could be the first national capital in the world to completely exhaust its water supply.[73] The city is located on the Tawilah aquifer, which was first identified in 1972. The aquifer has a natural recharge rate of 42 Mm3/a, much of which comes from the periodic outflow of water from the surrounding wadis onto the Sanaa plain. There is not much refill from rainfall. In 1995, water extraction from the aquifer exceeded the natural recharge rate by around 300%.[11] More recent estimates are higher, suggesting 400–500%.[7] This has caused groundwater levels to drop by 6 to 8 metres annually,[7] to the point that many wells have to be drilled as far down as 2,600 to 3,900 feet.[73] It is estimated that, with a slightly lower rate of depletion, the aquifer will be completely exhausted by around 2030.[73][11]
As much as 90% of Yemen's water use is in agriculture, with irrigated farmland increasing from 37,000
In the city of Sanaa itself, there was a continuous expansion of tap water supply under the National Water and Sanitation Authority (NSWA) through the end of the 1990s, but it was outpaced by the city's growth. The public water supply only served 40–50% of Sanaa residents by 2000.[11] The percentage has decreased in recent years: in 2009, it was estimated that 55% of residents were connected to the public water supply; in 2018, only 43% did.[7] For residents without access to the municipal water network, the only option for drinking water is from tanker trucks, which is expensive.[34] Access to tap water is also inconsistent between neighborhoods, and even in places where there is public water, water pressure can be too low, resulting in unreliable access for some households.[11] Most households have access to water for less than one full day per week.[7] There are also problems with pipe leakage, with estimates ranging from 40% to 60% of water being lost due to leaks.[7]
Additionally, there are problems with water quality in Sanaa due to wastewater getting into water pipes and also leaching down into the aquifer.
As of 2009, the average domestic water consumption in Sanaa was just 30 to 50 liters per day, which is far below the usual amount for city-dwellers in the Middle East.[34]
In the pre-modern era, Sanaa used an irrigation called ghayls. These ran from external towns in peripheral areas and brought water into the city. They were responsible for much of Sanaa's water supply for most of its history.[74]
Wastewater management
The
Only 40% of Sanaa's population is connected to wastewater services as of 2018 (down from 45% in 2014), and over half of the population relies on private cesspits for wastewater disposal.[7] The wastewater is then either absorbed into the ground or pumped out by either the city's Wastewater and Sanitation Local Corporation or by private services.[7] Of Sanaa's 35 informal settlements, only two (Madhbah and Bayt Maiyad) are connected to the city's sewer system, while most of the others rely on cesspits.[7] In one, Suq Shamlan, sewage is dumped in an open hole.[7]
Solid waste management
It is estimated that 1500 tonnes of solid waste are generated each day in the Sanaa metro area.[7] The city is mainly serviced by the al-Azraqayn landfill, which also serves the surrounding Sanaa Governorate as well as 'Amran Governorate.[7] The landfill has been in operation since the 1970s and has almost reached full capacity.[7] There is no base or surface sealing at the site, so the leachate is not captured.[7] A facility for the treatment of healthcare waste exists at the al-Azraqayn landfill; the first of its type in Yemen, it was expected to open in March 2015, but due to the ongoing conflict and lack of electricity, the opening was delayed indefinitely.[7]
Since the escalation of the Yemeni civil war in 2015, the Azraqayn landfill has no longer been operating at full capacity.
As of August 2015, the city of Sanaa employed 19 people as waste pickers for use in recycling: 4 at al-Azraqayn and 15 (12 men and 3 boys) at Sanaa Transit Station.[7]
International relations
Twin towns and sister cities
Gallery
-
Houses in old Sana'a. Ibex and Bull were sacred animals in ancient Yemen. Yemenis put Ibex or Bull horns at top of houses to protect from evil eyes.[79]
-
A house in Sana'a
-
House with traditional ''Qamariah''
-
A dome in old Sana'a
-
Night streetscene in Sanaʽa
-
Narrow street in Sanaa
-
Tower houses in Sanaa
-
Tower houses in Sanaa
-
Ground-level view of a tower house
See also
- Mahwa Aser
- Sanaʽa manuscript– fragments from over 1,000 early Quranic codices, discovered at the Great Mosque in Sanaʽa in 1972.
- Yemeni Revolution
- Jabal Tiyal, another high mountain nearby
References
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- ^ Jacob Saphir, in his ethnographic work Iben Safir (vol. 1 – ch. 43), Lyck 1866, p. 99 – folio A (Hebrew), states that the Jews of Yemen have a tradition that there settlement in Yemen began 42 years before the destruction of the First Temple. The Jewish year for the destruction of the First Temple is traditionally given in Jewish computation as 3338 AM or 421/2 BCE. This differs from the modern scientific year, which is usually expressed using the Proleptic Julian calendar as 587 BCE.
- ^ Yosef Tobi (ed.), Studies in 'Megillat Teman' by Yiḥyah Salaḥ, The Magnes Press: Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1986, p. 67.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Johnson, J. K., ed. (1984). The Admission and Academic Placement of Students from Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arab Republic: A Workshop Report, October–November 1983. Al Ain: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. pp. 93–108. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
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- ^ http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/agreements.aspx
- ^ https://dushanbe.tj/goroda-pobratimy
- ^ "گذری بر خواهرخوانده تهران در شرق اروپا". isna.ir (in Persian). Iranian Students' News Agency. 21 March 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
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Further reading
External links
- Eric Hansen, Sanaʽa rising, Saudi Aramco World, 2006. Vol. 57 No. 1
- Tim Mackintosh-Smith, The Secret Gardens of Sanaʽa. Saudi Aramco World, 2006 Vol. 57 No. 1
- Traditional housing in the old quarter of Sanaa in 1972
- ArchNet.org. "Sanaʽa". Cambridge, Massachusetts, US: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013.
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905. .