Operation Gladio
Operation Gladio | |
---|---|
Secret stay-behind network Part of Western Europe | |
Planned | 1952–1990 |
Planned by | Western intelligence agencies |
Objective | Counter an invasion of Europe by the Warsaw Pact |
Date | 1 January 1952 |
Executed by | Western Union Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (NATO)
|
Outcome | Continued operations into the 1990s, exposure and disclosure |
Operation Gladio was the codename for clandestine "
According to several Western European researchers, the operation involved the use of assassination,
History and general stay-behind structure
British experience during World War II
Following the
A network of resistance fighters was formed across Britain and arms caches were established. The network was recruited, in part, from the 5th (Ski) Battalion of the
While David Lampe published a book on the Auxiliary Units in 1968,[11] their existence did not become widely known by the public until reporters such as David Pallister of The Guardian revived interest in them during the 1990s.
Post-war creation
After World War II, the UK and the US decided to create "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations, with the official aim of countering a possible Soviet invasion through sabotage and guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines. Arms caches were hidden, escape routes prepared, and loyal members recruited, whether in Italy or in other European countries. Its clandestine "cells" were to stay behind in enemy-controlled territory and to act as resistance movements, conducting sabotage, guerrilla warfare and assassinations.
Clandestine
NATO provided a forum to integrate, coordinate, and optimise the use of all SB assets as part of the Emergency War Plan. This coordination included the military SB units, which were part of NATO's order of battle, and the clandestine SBOs run by NATO nations. Western secret services had cooperated in various bilateral, triparty, and multilateral fora in the creation, training, and running of clandestine Stay-behind organisations (SBO) soon after World War II. In 1947, France, the United Kingdom, and the Benelux countries had created a joint policy on SB in the Western Union Clandestine Committee (WUCC), a forum of the
In 1957, the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Benelux countries, all of which ran SBOs in Western Europe, established the 'Six Powers Lines Committee' which became the Allied Clandestine Committee in 1958 and, after 1976, the Allied Coordination Committee (ACC). The ACC has been described as a technical committee to bring national SBOs together. It took its guidance from the CPC and organized multinational exercises. The authority of SACEUR when it came to clandestine operations was discussed in the early 1950s as one can gather from the document 'SHAPE Problems Outstanding with the Standing Group', which, under sub-heading 'IV. Special Plans' calls for the 'Delineation of Responsibilities of the Clandestine Services and of SACEUR on Clandestine Matters Including Pertinent Definitions and Organizations' and 'Principles for Unorthodox Warfare Planning'. While all this concerned the highest level of NATO command, coordination in time of crisis had to be arranged. Thus, to coordinate these activities at different command levels in wartime, SACEUR created the Allied Clandestine Coordinating Groups (ACCG) staffed with personnel from NATO nations at SHAPE and the subordinate commands. In case of war, SACEUR was meant to exercise operational control of national clandestine services' assets, according to each nation's existing policies, through the ACCG. By 1961 though, 'both SHAPE and CPC [now] accepted that such SB activity [guerrilla warfare and resistance under Soviet occupation] was a purely national responsibility'.[16]
Upon learning of the discovery, the parliament of the European Union (EU) drafted a resolution sharply criticizing the fact.[clarification needed] Yet only Italy, Belgium and Switzerland carried out parliamentary investigations, while the administration of President George H. W. Bush refused to comment.[17]
NATO's "stay-behind" organizations were never called upon to resist a Soviet invasion. According to a November 13, 1990, Reuters cable,[18] "André Moyen – a former member of the Belgian military security service and of the [stay-behind] network – said Gladio was not just anti-Communist but was for fighting subversion in general. He added that his predecessor had given Gladio 142 million francs ($4.6 million) to buy new radio equipment."[19]
Operations in NATO countries
Italy
The Italian NATO stay-behind organization, dubbed "Gladio", was set up under
Researcher Francesco Cacciatore, in an article based on recently de-classified documents, writes that a "note from March 1972 specified that the possibility of using 'Gladio' in the event of internal subversions, not provided for by the organization's statute and not supported by NATO directives or plans, was outside the scope of the original stay-behind and, therefore, 'never to be considered among the purposes of the operation'. The pressure put forward by the Americans during the 1960s to use 'Gladio' for purposes other than those of a stay-behind network would appear to have failed in the long term."[24]
According to the former Italian Ministry of Grace and Justice
Giulio Andreotti's revelations on 24 October 1990
Christian Democrat Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti publicly recognized the existence of Gladio on 24 October 1990. Andreotti spoke of a "structure of information, response and safeguard", with arms caches and reserve officers. He gave to the Commissione Stragi[26] a list of 622 civilians who according to him were part of Gladio. Andreotti also stated that 127 weapons caches had been dismantled, and said that Gladio had not been involved in any of the bombings committed from the 1960s to the 1980s.
Andreotti declared that the Italian military services (predecessors of the SISMI) had joined in 1964 the Allied Clandestine Committee created in 1957 by the US, France, Belgium and Greece, and which was in charge of directing Gladio's operations.
Judicial Inquiries
The judge Guido Salvini, who worked in the Italian Massacres Commission, found out that several far-right terrorist organizations were the trench troops of a secret army who were linked to the CIA.[31] Salvini said: "The role of the Americans was ambiguous, halfway between knowing and not preventing and actually inducing people to commit atrocities".[32]
Judge Gerardo D'Ambrosio found out that in a conference that had the patronage of the Chief Staff of Defense, there were instructions to infiltrate left-wing groups and provoke social tension by carrying out attacks and then blame them on the left.[33]
2000 parliamentary report and the strategy of tension
In 2000, a parliamentary commission report from the left-wing coalition
It also reported that
General Serravalle's statements
General Gerardo Serravalle, who commanded the Italian Gladio from 1971 to 1974, related that "in the 1970s the members of the CPC [Coordination and Planning Committee] were the officers responsible for the secret structures of Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Italy. These representatives of the secret structures met every year in one of the capitals... At the stay-behind meetings representatives of the CIA were always present. They had no voting rights and were from the CIA headquarters of the capital in which the meeting took place... members of the US Forces Europe Command were present, also without voting rights. "[35] Next to the CPC a second secret command post was created in 1957, the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC). According to the Belgian Parliamentary Committee on Gladio, the ACC was "responsible for coordinating the 'Stay-behind' networks in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland, Norway, United Kingdom and the United States". During peacetime, the activities of the ACC "included elaborating the directives for the network, developing its clandestine capability and organising bases in Britain and the United States. In wartime, it was to plan stay-behind operations in conjunction with SHAPE; organisers were to activate clandestine bases and organise operations from there".[36] General Serravalle declared to the Commissione Stragi headed by senator Giovanni Pellegrino that the Italian Gladio members trained at a military base in Britain.[13]
Belgium
After the 1967 withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure, the SHAPE headquarters were displaced to Mons in Belgium. In 1990, following France's denial of any "stay-behind" French army, Giulio Andreotti publicly said the last Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) meeting, at which the French branch of Gladio was present, had been on October 23 and 24, 1990, under the presidency of Belgian General Van Calster, director of the Belgian military General Service for Intelligence (SGR). In November, Guy Coëme, the Minister of Defense, acknowledged the existence of a Belgian "stay-behind" army, raising concerns about a similar implication in terrorist acts as in Italy. The same year, the European Parliament sharply condemned NATO and the United States in a resolution for having manipulated European politics with the stay-behind armies.[12][37]
New legislation governing intelligence agencies' missions and methods was passed in 1998, following two government inquiries and the creation of a permanent parliamentary committee in 1991, which was to bring them under the authority of Belgium's federal agencies. The commission was created following events in the 1980s, which included the
Denmark
The Danish stay-behind army was code-named Absalon, after
The situation in each Scandinavian country was different. Norway and Denmark were NATO allies, Sweden held to the neutrality that had taken her through two world wars, and Finland were required to defer in its foreign policy to the Soviet power directly on its borders. Thus, in one set of these countries the governments themselves would build their own stay-behind nets, counting on activating them from exile to carry on the struggle. These nets had to be co-ordinated with NATO's plans, their radios had to be hooked to a future exile location, and the specialised equipment had to be secured from CIA and secretly cached in snowy hideouts for later use. In the other set of countries, CIA would have to do the job alone or with, at best, "unofficial" local help, since the politics of those governments barred them from collaborating with NATO, and any exposure would arouse immediate protest from the local Communist press, Soviet diplomats and loyal Scandinavians who hoped that neutrality or nonalignment would allow them to slip through a World War III unharmed.
France
In 1947, Interior Minister Édouard Depreux revealed the existence of a secret stay-behind army in France codenamed "Plan Bleu". The next year, the "Western Union Clandestine Committee" (WUCC) was created to coordinate secret unorthodox warfare. In 1949, the WUCC was integrated into NATO, whose headquarters were established in France, under the name "Clandestine Planning Committee" (CPC). In 1958, NATO founded the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) to coordinate secret warfare.[40]
The network was supported with elements from
La Rose des Vents and Arc-en-ciel ("Rainbow") network were part of Gladio.
Germany
US intelligence also assisted in the set up of a West German stay-behind network.
Documents shown to the Italian parliamentary terrorism committee revealed that in the 1970s British and French officials involved in the network visited a training base in Germany built with US money.[13]
In 1976, West German secret service
In 2004 the German author Norbert Juretzko published a book about his work at the BND. He went into details about recruiting partisans for the German stay-behind network. He was sacked from BND following a
Civilians recruited as stay-behind partisans were equipped with a clandestine shortwave radio homed in on a fixed frequency. It had a keyboard with digital encryption, making use of traditional Morse code obsolete. They had a cache of further equipment for signalling helicopters or submarines to drop special agents who were to stay in the partisan's homes while mounting sabotage operations against the communists.
Greece
When Greece joined NATO in 1952, the country's special forces,
According to Ilektra, LOK was involved in the
Arrested and then exiled in Canada and Sweden, Andreas Papandreou later returned to Greece, where he won the
Following Giulio Andreotti's revelations in 1990, the Greek defence minister confirmed that a branch of the network, known as Operation Sheepskin, operated in his country until 1988.[48]
In December 2005, journalist Kleanthis Grivas published an article in To Proto Thema, a Greek Sunday newspaper, in which he accused "Sheepskin" for the assassination of CIA station chief
Netherlands
Speculation that the Netherlands was involved in Gladio arose from the accidental discovery of large arms caches in 1980 and 1983.[50] In the latter incident, people walking in a forest near the village of Rozendaal, near Arnhem, chanced upon a large hidden cache of arms, containing dozens of hand grenades, semiautomatic rifles, automatic pistols, munitions and explosives.[51][52] That discovery forced the Dutch government to confirm that the arms were related to NATO planning for unorthodox warfare.[53]
In 1990, then-Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers told the Dutch Parliament that his office was running a secret organisation that had been set up inside the Dutch defence ministry in the 1950s, but denied it was supervised directly by NATO or other foreign bodies. He went on to inform that successive prime ministers and defence chiefs had always preferred not to inform other Cabinet members or Parliament about the secret organization. It was modelled on the nation's World War II experiences of having to evacuate the royal family and transfer government to a government-in-exile,[52] originally aiming to provide an underground intelligence network to a government-in-exile in the event of a foreign invasion, although it included elements of guerilla warfare. Former Dutch Defence Minister Henk Vredeling confirmed the group had set up arms caches around the Netherlands for sabotage purposes.[52]
Already in 1990, it was known that the weapons cache near Velp, while accidentally 'discovered' in 1983, had been plundered partially before. It still contained dozens of hand grenades, semiautomatic rifles, automatic pistols, munitions and explosives at the time of discovery, but five hand grenades had gone missing.
Norway
In 1957, the director of the secret service
In 1978, the police discovered an arms cache and radio equipment at a mountain cabin and arrested Hans Otto Meyer (no), a businessman accused of being involved in selling illegal alcohol. Meyer claimed that the weapons were supplied by Norwegian intelligence. Rolf Hansen, defence minister at that time, stated the network was not in any way answerable to NATO and had no CIA connection.[57]
Portugal
In 1966, the CIA set up Aginter Press which, under the direction of Captain Yves Guérin-Sérac (who had taken part in the founding of the OAS), ran a secret stay-behind army and trained its members in covert action techniques amounting to terrorism, including bombings, silent assassinations, subversion techniques, clandestine communication and infiltration and colonial warfare.[12]
Turkey
In an excerpt from Mehtap Söyler's 2015 book entitled The Turkish Deep State: State Consolidation, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, Söyler details how certain Western forces encouraged Turkish nationalism via Operation Gladio. Specifically, Operation Gladio empowered Turanism through the founding member of the Counter-Guerrilla; Alparslan Türkeş — a product of that CIA initiative.[58]
As one of the nations that prompted the Truman Doctrine, Turkey is one of the first countries to participate in Operation Gladio and, some[who?] say, the only country where it has not been purged.[59] The counter-guerrillas' existence in Turkey was revealed in 1973 by then-prime minister Bülent Ecevit.[60]
General
Additionally, the CIA employed people from the far-right, such as
Parallel stay-behind operations in non-NATO countries
Austria
In Austria, the first secret stay-behind army was exposed in 1947. It had been set up by the far-right Theodor Soucek and Hugo Rössner, who both insisted during their trial that "they were carrying out the secret operation with the full knowledge and support of the US and British occupying powers." Sentenced to death, they had their sentences commuted to life in prison and 20 years, respectively, by Karl Renner, to prevent them from potentially becoming martyrs. In August 1952, the convicts were pardoned and released by President Theodor Körner.[65] While there is evidence suggesting that the activities of Soucek and Rössner were tolerated to an extent by local occupation authorities, available American archives do not suggest that they had any connection to U.S. intelligence. A secret review of the situation by US forces in Austria in early January 1948 implies that while the group were presenting themselves as anti-communist allies, the Americans did not trust them, viewing them as "adventurers and opportunists."[66]
Interior Minister Franz Olah set up a new secret army codenamed Österreichischer Wander-, Sport- und Geselligkeitsverein (OeWSGV, literally "Austrian Association of Hiking, Sports and Society"), with the cooperation of MI6 and the CIA. He later explained that "we bought cars under this name. We installed communication centres in several regions of Austria", confirming that "special units were trained in the use of weapons and plastic explosives". He stated that "there must have been a couple of thousand people working for us... Only very, very highly positioned politicians and some members of the union knew about it".[67]
In 1965, police discovered a stay-behind arms cache in an old mine close to Windisch-Bleiberg and forced the British authorities to hand over a list with the location of 33 other caches in Austria.[12]
In 1990, when secret "stay-behind" armies were uncovered all around Europe, the Austrian government said that no secret army had existed in the country. However, six years later,
Finland
In 1944, Sweden worked with Finnish Intelligence to set up a stay-behind network of agents within Finland to keep track of post-war activities in that country. While this network was allegedly never put in place, Finnish codes,
In 1945, Lauri Kumpulainen, a Finnish soldier with left-wing sympathies, exposed a secret stay-behind army which was closed down (so-called 'Weapons Cache Case'). This operation was organized by Finnish general staff officers (without foreign help) in 1944 to hide weapons in order to sustain large-scale guerrilla warfare in the event the Soviet Union tried to occupy Finland following the end of combat on the Finnish-Soviet front of WWII. Of those 5,000 to 10,000 people involved in the case, 1,488 of them were convicted. Most of them received prison terms of 1–4 months. Overall, the prison sentences of those convicted totaled nearly 400 years.
In 1991, the Swedish media claimed that a secret stay-behind army had existed in neutral Finland with an exile base in Stockholm. Finnish Defence Minister Elisabeth Rehn called the revelations "a fairy tale", adding cautiously "or at least an incredible story, of which I know nothing."[12] However, in his memoirs, former CIA director William Colby described the setting-up of stay-behind armies in the Nordic countries, including Finland, with or without the assistance of local governments, to prepare for a Soviet invasion.[39]
Spain
Several events prior to Spain's 1982 membership in NATO have also been tied to Gladio. In May 1976, half a year after
Following Andreotti's 1990 revelations,
According to General Fausto Fortunato, head of Italian SISMI from 1971 to 1974, France and the US had backed Spain's entrance to Gladio, but Italy would have opposed it. Following Andreotti's revelations, however, Narcís Serra, Spanish Minister of Defence, opened up an investigation concerning Spain's links to Gladio.[74][75] The Canarias 7 newspaper revealed, quoting former Gladio agent Alberto Volo, who had a role in the revelations of the existence of the network in 1990, that a Gladio meeting had been organized in August 1991 on Gran Canaria island.[76] Alberto Volo also declared that as a Gladio operative, he had received trainings in Maspalomas, on Gran Canaria in the 1960s and the 1970s.[77] El País also revealed that the Gladio organization was suspected of having used former NASA installations in Maspalomas, on Gran Canaria, in the 1970s.[78]
André Moyen, former Belgian secret agent, also declared that Gladio had operated in Spain.[79] He said that Gladio had bases in Madrid, Barcelona, San Sebastián, and the Canary islands.
Sweden
In 1951, CIA agent William Colby, based at the CIA station in Stockholm, supported the training of stay-behind armies in neutral Sweden and Finland and in the NATO members Norway and Denmark. In 1953, the police arrested Swedish Nazi Otto Hallberg and discovered the preparations for the Swedish stay-behind army.[80] Hallberg was set free and charges against him were dropped.[12]
In 1990, General Bengt Gustafsson, confirmed that a stay-behind network had existed in the country, but incorrectly added that neither NATO nor the CIA had been involved.[81] Paul Garbler, a CIA officer who had served in Sweden, corrected that Sweden was a "direct participant" in the network, adding, "I'm not able to talk about it without causing the Swedes a good deal of heartburn."[81]
Switzerland
In Switzerland, a secret force called P-26 was discovered, by coincidence, a few months before Giulio Andreotti's October 1990 revelations. After the "secret files scandal" (Fichenaffäre), Swiss members of parliament started investigating the Defense Department in the summer of 1990. According to Felix Würsten of the ETH Zurich, "P-26 was not directly involved in the network of NATO's secret armies but it had close contact to MI6."[82] Daniele Ganser (ETH Zurich) wrote in the Intelligence and National Security review that "following the discovery of the stay-behind armies across Western Europe in late 1990, Swiss and international security researchers found themselves confronted with two clear-cut questions: Did Switzerland also operate a secret stay-behind army? And if yes, was it part of NATO's stay-behind network? The answer to the first question is clearly yes... The answer to the second question remains disputed..."[83]
In 1990, Colonel Herbert Alboth, a former commander of P-26, declared in a confidential letter to the Defence Department that he was willing to reveal "the whole truth". He was later found in his house,
In 1991, a report by Swiss magistrate Pierre Cornu was released by the Swiss defence ministry. It found that P-26 was without "political or legal legitimacy", and described the group's collaboration with British secret services as "intense". "Unknown to the Swiss government, British officials signed agreements with P-26 to provide training in combat, communications, and sabotage. The latest agreement was signed in 1987... P-26 cadres participated regularly in training exercises in Britain... British advisers – possibly from the SAS – visited secret training establishments in Switzerland." P-26 was led by Efrem Cattelan, known to British intelligence.[85]
In a 2005 conference presenting Daniele Ganser's research on Gladio,
Daniele Ganser and criticism
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Swiss historian Daniele Ganser in his 2005 book, NATO's Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe,[47] accused Gladio of trying to influence policies through the means of false flag operations and a strategy of tension. Ganser alleges that on various occasions, stay-behind movements became linked to right-wing terrorism, crime and attempted coups d'état.[68] In NATO's Secret Armies Ganser states that Gladio units closely cooperated with NATO and the CIA and that Gladio in Italy was responsible for terrorist attacks against its own civilian population.[87]
Criticism of Ganser
Peer Henrik Hansen, a scholar at
Lawrence Kaplan wrote a mixed review commending Ganser for making "heroic efforts to tease out the many strands that connect this interlocking right-wing conspiracy", but also arguing that "connecting the dots between terrorist organizations in NATO countries and a master plan centred in NATO's military headquarters requires a stretch of facts that Ganser cannot manage." Kaplan believes that some of Ganser's conspiracy theories "may be correct", but that "they do damage to the book's credibility."[94] In a mostly positive review for the journal Cold War History, Beatrice Heuser praises Ganser's "fascinating study" while also noting that "it would definitely have improved the work if Ganser had used a less polemical tone, and had occasionally conceded that the Soviet Empire was by no means nicer."[95] Security analyst John Prados writes "Ganser, the principal analyst of Gladio, presents evidence across many nations that Gladio networks amounted to anti-democratic elements in their own societies."[96]
The US
US State Department's 2006 response
The
The State Department stated that the accusations of US-sponsored "
In popular culture
- An analogue of Operation Gladio was described in the 1949 fiction novel An Affair of State by Pat Frank.[98] In Frank's version, U.S. Department of State officers recruit a stay-behind network in Hungary to fight an insurgency against the Soviet Union after the Soviet Union launches an attack on and captures Western Europe.
- In the 2012 Nazis."
- ISBN 978-1-910-70108-9
- The Fox at IMDb, a 2017 English drama with Gladio as a main plot point, produced in the Netherlands by Alex ter Beek and Klaas van Eikeren.
- Chris Ryan's 2001 novel The Watchman. It gives an outline of Gladio together with the discovery of a hidden arms and equipment cache dating back to 1940 and subsequently assigned to Gladio.
- Gladio at IMDb Allan Francovich. . Three-part BBC TV documentary, 1992. Directed by
- NATO's Secret Armies at IMDb Andreas Pichler. . Documentary, 2010. Directed by
- Gladio – Geheimarmeen in Europa at IMDb. German documentary, 2011. Directed by Frank Gutermuth and Wolfgang Schoen.
- Romanzo Criminale at . . Drama, 2005. Concerning the "
- Valley of the Wolves: Gladio. Turkish drama, 2009
- The 2019 Dutch film and series Amsterdam Vice includes stay-behind ammunition dumps as part of the plot
See also
- Operation Northwoods
- CIA activities in Italy
- Fifth column
- Alpo K. Marttinen
- Propaganda Due
- Terrorism
References
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Türkiye'deki gizli ordunun adı kontr gerilladır.
- ^ Fernandes, Desmond; Ozden, Iskender (Spring 2001). "United States and NATO Inspired 'Psychological Warfare Operations' Against The 'Kurdish Communist Threat' in Turkey" (PDF). Variant. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2023.
- ^ Gezer, Şenol (17 April 2006). "Oral Çelik: 'Ülkücüleri Naziler eğitti'". Bugün. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ISBN 978-0-940380-06-6.
- YouTube
- ^ https://austria-forum.org, Austria-Forum |. "Die Aktion Sacher deckte die Verschwörung auf". Austria-Forum (in German). Retrieved 24 February 2024.
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: External link in
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- ISBN 978-0-7524-9642-9.
- ^ Lendman, Stephen (September 2010). "NATO's Secret Armies". MCW News.
- ^ Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, South Orange NJ, Winter/Spring 2005, Vol. 6, No. 1. Archived from the original(PDF) on 18 March 2023.
- ^ C. G. McKay, Bengt Beckman, Swedish Signal Intelligence, Frank Cass Publishers, 2002, p. 202
- ^ "CARLISMO MONTEJURRA LIBERTAD Actos de Montejurra 2006". Montejurra-jurramendi.3a2.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2005.
- ^ Un informe oficial italiano implica en el crimen de Atocha al 'ultra' Cicuttini, relacionado con Gladio, El País, December 2, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ Suárez afirma que en su etapa de presidente nunca se habló de la red Gladio, El País, November 18, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ Calvo Sotelo asegura que España no fue informada, cuando entró en la OTAN, de la existencia de Gladio, El País, November 21, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ Italia vetó la entrada de España en Gladio, según un ex jefe del espionaje italiano, El País, November 17, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ Serra ordena indagar sobre la red Gladio en España, El País, November 16, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ La 'red Gladio' continúa operando, según el ex agente Alberto Volo, El País, August 19, 1991 (in Spanish)
- ^ El secretario de la OTAN elude precisar si España tuvo relación con la red Gladio, El País, November 24, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ Indicios de que la red Gladio utilizó una vieja estación de la NASA en Gran Canaria, El País, November 26, 1990 (in Spanish)
- ^ La red secreta de la OTAN operaba en España, según un ex agente belga, El País, November 14, 1990
- ISBN 9789185677535.
Fram till krigsslutet och något år därefter verkar hans aktiviteter huvudsakligen ha kanaliserats genom partiet och dess tidning Den svenske folksocialisten, som han redigerade.
- ^ a b Ganser, Daniele (2005). "Terrorism in Western Europe: An Approach to NATO's Secret Stay-Behind Armies" (PDF). Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. 6 (1).
- ^ a b The Dark Side of the West, Conference "Nato Secret Armies and P-26," ETH Zurich, 2005. Published 10 February 2005. Retrieved February 7, 2007.
- ISSN 0268-4527print 1743–9019 online.
- ^ Richard Norton-Taylor, "The Gladio File: did fear of communism throw West into the arms of terrorists?", in The Guardian, December 5, 1990
- ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard. UK trained secret Swiss force" in The Guardian, September 20, 1991, p. 7.
- ^ "Schwarzer Schatten". Der Spiegel (in German) (50): 194b–200a. 10 December 1990. Retrieved 28 October 2008.[verification needed]
- ISBN 978-3-531-19324-3
- ^ Peer Henrik Hansen, "Review of NATO's Secret Armies," Journal of Intelligence History, Summer 2005. Web Archive – archived website of August 26, 2007
- ^ Peer Henrik Hansen, "Falling Flat on the Stay-Behinds," International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, January 2006, 182-186.
- ^ The Intelligence Officer's Bookshelf Hayden Peake, CIA, April 15, 2007
- ^ Philip HJ Davies, "Review of NATO's Secret Armies," The Journal of Strategic Studies, December 2005, 1064–1068.
- ^ Olav Riste, "Review of NATO's Secret Armies," Intelligence and National Security, September 2005, 550-551.
- ^ Olav Riste and Leopoldo Nuti, "Introduction: Strategy of 'Stay-Behind'," The Journal of Strategic Studies, December 2007, 930.
- ^ Lawrence Kaplan, "Review of NATO's Secret Armies," The International History Review, September 2006, 685-686.
- ^ Beatrice Heuser, "Review of NATO's Secret Armies," Cold War History, November 2006, 567-568.
- ISBN 9781615780112
- ^ State Department.
- ^ Pat Frank. An Affair of State. J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1949
Further reading
English
- ISBN 0671228757.
- ISBN 0714685003.
- ISBN 0692213295.
- ISBN 978-1616149741.
- Francesco Cacciatore (2021). "Stay-behind Networks and Interim Flexible Strategy: The 'Gladio' Case and US Covert Intervention in Italy in the Cold War." .
Non-English
- Claudio Sestieri; Giovanni Pellegrino; Giovanni Fasanella: Segreto di Stato: la verità da Gladio al caso Moro. Torino: Einaudi, 2000. ISBN 9788806156251 (see civic website of Bologna) (in Italian)
- Jan Willems, Gladio, 1991, ISBN 2-87262-051-6). (in French)
- Jens Mecklenburg, Gladio. Die geheime Terrororganisation der Nato, 1997, Elefanten Press Verlag GmbH, Berlin (ISBN 3-88520-612-9). (in German)
- Leo A. Müller, Gladio. Das Erbe des kalten Krieges, 1991, RoRoRo-Taschenbuch Aktuell no 12993 (ISBN 3499 129930). (in German)
- Jean-François Brozzu-Gentile, L'Affaire Gladio. Les réseaux secrets américains au cœur du terrorisme en Europe, 1994, ISBN 2-226-06919-4). (in French)
- Anna Laura Braghetti, Paola Tavella, Le Prisonnier. 55 jours avec Aldo Moro, 1999 (translated from Italian: Il Prigioniero), Éditions Denoël, Paris (ISBN 2-207-24888-7) (in Italian and French)
- Regine Igel, Andreotti. Politik zwischen Geheimdienst und Mafia, 1997, Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung GmbH, Munich (ISBN 3-7766-1951-1). (in German)
- François Vitrani, "L'Italie, un Etat de 'souveraineté limitée' ?", in Le Monde diplomatique, December 1990. (in French)
- Patrick Boucheron, "L'affaire Sofri: un procès en sorcellerie?", in L'Histoire magazine, n°217 (January 1998) Concerning Carlo Ginzburg's book The judge and the historian about Adriano Sofri (in French)
- "Les procès Andreotti en Italie" ("The University of Toulouse II, Groupe de recherche sur l'histoire immédiate (Study group on immediate history). (in French)
- Angelo Paratico: Gli assassini del karma Roma: Robin, 2004. ISBN 978-8873710646.
External links
- Wikisource. – via
- Secret Warfare: Operation Gladio and NATO's Stay-Behind Armies. Edited by Daniele Ganser and Christian Nuenlist, 29 Nov 2004. ETH Zürich. (Internet Archive mirror)
- NATO's Secret Armies. by Daniele Ganser, 2005. Full text. Archived July 19, 2023(Date mismatch), at the Wayback Machine
- Lectures from book launch of NATO's Secret Armies.
- Reviews of NATO's Secret Armies.
- Operation Gladio. BBC documentary (1992). Directed by Allan Francovich.
- NATO's Secret Armies. Documentary (2009). Directed by Andreas Pichler.