Operation Shed Light
Operation Shed Light | |||||||
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Part of the Vietnam War | |||||||
Tropic Moon III B-57G aircraft with FLIR and LLLTV in nose | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
United States Thailand | North Vietnam |
Operation Shed Light was a crash development project in aerial warfare, initiated in 1966 by the United States Air Force to increase the ability to accurately strike at night or in adverse weather. During the 1960s the United States military worked hard to interdict the movement of men and materiel along the Ho Chi Minh trail. The North Vietnamese were experts in the use of weather and darkness to conceal their movement, and understanding the superiority of American air power put their skills immediately to good use. US forces seeking to impede the steady flow of supplies attempted to locate largely static targets during the day with poor results.
The United States Air Force, focused toward nuclear weapons and delivery of such munitions against static strategic targets had spent little effort in expanding its tactical capabilities since the end of World War II. Operation Shed Light sought to rectify this by bringing together improved tactics and technology. The programs were subsequently centered on improved communication and navigation aids for all-weather and night flying, sensor equipment for seeing through clouds, foliage, and darkness, improved equipment and methods for target marking and battlefield illumination, and aircraft and tactics to utilize these developments. In the end, few of the programs would yield applicable results and most of the aircraft developed under its umbrella would largely fall into obscurity. The most applicable developments were those that could be mainstreamed such as the work done on navigation and communication and sensor equipment.
Origins
The United States Air Force had largely redirected its efforts to the matter of strategic deterrence in the period between the
As a result of the orientation toward nuclear war, tactical air strikes were flown almost exclusively by the US Air Force between 1964 and 1966 using a variety of fighter bombers intended initially for the delivery of small strategic and tactical nuclear weapons. These types included the
Realizing the need for more dedicated attack aircraft the Air Force combed its inventory and looked to invest in new types. It found itself with an odd selection of obsolete, new, and experimental aircraft, and grasped for immediate solutions. To try and coordinate this effort, a task force was established by Lt. General James Ferguson, then Deputy Chief of Staff for Research and Development. Dubbed Operation Shed Light, it began on 7 February 1966 as a means of coordinating a wide variety of technological and other projects and programs that were being pursued in order to improve the United States Air Force's night fighting capabilities. Outlined in the Task Force's charter as of April were the following:
- Identify current equipment, techniques, and procedures being used by the USAF in Southeast Asia.
- Identify planned modifications and new equipment being developed for Southeast Asia.
- Survey exploratory, advanced development, and operational support projects having a potential application to the problem, indicating current programs or schedules.
- Identify voids in our capabilities or efforts.
- Recommend courses of action to improve and/or provide new attack capability in 1966, 1967, and the longer term.[9]
In all, the Shed Light Task Force identified nine new weapon systems and seventy-seven research and development "tasks" in the first five months of operation.[10] Over the next 5–10 years it hoped to have a fully functional "self-contained night attack aircraft," a single type that would meet the operational need and would be functionally useful in other similar situations.
Initial programs
Shed Light's initial programs were broken down into a number of categories, the most important being communication and navigation systems, sensors, and illumination and target marking equipment. Also detailed were proposed aircraft modifications and tactics.
Issues of communication and navigation were identified under Shed Light. That air strikes could not be called in effectively and/or guided to the target reduced the effectiveness of air power overall.[11] A variety of communication system improvements and navigational aids, including improvements to the Long-Range Navigation (LORAN) system (specifically LORAN-D) were incorporated into the Shed Light mission.[12]
Sensors
The sensors to be developed under Shed Light were broken into three categories,
Two LLLTV systems were in development initially. Both were podded, designed to be added to aircraft already in USAF inventory. The first, produced by Dalmo-Victor under Project 1533, was LLLTV only, but had provision for a laser range finder. It was intended for the
A prototype FLIR unit had been tested under Project Red Sea in a
Illumination equipment and target marking
Battlefield illumination was of key importance within the original Shed Light programs. The dominant aerial flare at the time was the Mk 24 Mod 0, developed by the US Navy. Reliability of the units, however, were in question, as was availability. Perhaps of greater concern was existing test data in 1966 that suggested pilot disorientation and flare placement were serious issues. Project Night Owl, conducted in 1954, testing flares dropped from
A new flare, designated MLU-32/B99, also referred to as Briteye, was put into development. The new flare burned at 5 million candle power for over five minutes and produced a signal that could be heard by pilots indicating when it was about to burn out. Additionally, the Navy's Mk 33 Mod 0 flare warhead for the 5" Mk 16 "Zuni" rocket motor was tested under Shed Light.[22] Projected delays in the procurement of the MLU-32/B99 led to a proposal to test the Swedish Lepus flare as an interim measure. The Lepus flare was tested, but found to be inferior to the MLU-32/B99.[23]
The issues surrounding flares led to exploration of other methods of battlefield illumination. The Battlefield Illumination Airborne System or BIAS, employed two banks of Xenon ARC lamps (28 total) fitted to a modified
More unorthodox methods were also explored. Astrosystems International developed a so-called "Quartz Chamber" which burned pure oxygen and aircraft fuel, converting the chemical energy into light. The system was planned to be evaluated within a year, and installed in a similar arrangement to the more conventional BIAS. A plan, codenamed Moonshine, was also put forward. Moonshine was to be a joint effort with NASA to determine the feasibility of a geosynchronous satellite that could project light directly down on any desired location.[26]
Ground target marking, which was a key tactic for day time strikes, was investigated. Project 2531 was to investigate target marking munitions, and looked into warheads for the
Aircraft and tactics
The key aircraft intended to be developed under Shed Light was to be a "Self Contained Night Attack" aircraft or SCNA. The SCNA would have "the necessary night sensors and weapon delivery capability to find and strike targets at night on the first pass without the use of visible artificial illumination."[30]
However, to provide an interim capability, the idea of using a "Hunter-Killer" concept using aircraft capable of spotting targets at night and more or less unmodified conventional strike aircraft was proposed.
A three-phase program had been outlined as early as 1966 for development of the SCNA. The first would be a slower bomber or cargo aircraft, followed, by a jet aircraft of some type. The
With the decision not to use the OV-10 and the desire for an immediate capability, the USAF decided to investigate using the
The F-111 would initially have a mixed record in Southeast Asia, when a detachment of six aircraft from the
Black Spot
Perhaps the most radical of Shed Light's projects were two
The Black Spot aircraft were to fit under the "self-contained night attack capability" description and
- Autonetics (A division of North American Aviation) R-132 forward looking radar (FLR) to locate targets for closer inspection via Low Light Level TV (LLLTV) and Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR), and featured a Moving Target Indicator (MTI) and automatic tracking capability.
- An Avco FLIR.
- WestinghouseLLLTV, with automatic tracking.
- A Westinghouse laser rangefinder.
The LLLTV system was described as having the highest resolution, and was to be the primary means of target location and engagement.[45] The aircraft itself looked radically different visibly from its transport brethren, as the new equipment required lengthening the nose by over 50 inches (130 cm).[46]
Also included was an armament system that could carry BLU-3/B (using the ADU-253/B adapter) or BLU-26/B (using the ADU-272/B adapter)
The two aircraft, serial numbers 54-691 and 54-698, were first designated NC-123K in 1968 and then redesignated AC-123K in 1969.[50] These NC/AC-123Ks were first deployed operationally at Osan in South Korea between August and October 1968, and flying in support of operations against North Korean infiltrators approaching by boat. The operations in Korea met with a certain level of success and as a result the NC/AC-123Ks were transferred to South Vietnam in November 1968.
Once in South Vietnam the aircraft were engaged in missions against the transport of materiel along
The two aircraft were returned to the United States, to Hurlburt Field, Florida in May 1969, where a second round of training occurred. Four crews attended a ground school in Greenville, Texas and returned to Hurlburt where they flew the aircraft for the first time. In October 1969, two crews flew the aircraft to a second deployment at Ubon. The other two crews arrived in early November. After attending jungle survival training at Clark AB in the Philippines missions over Laos commenced.
The final phases of the program are slightly unclear. Some sources have missions terminating in early July, 1970 and the aircraft flying to the "
However, the official history states that combat operations ceased 11 May 1969, with no mention of the second deployment.[44] The second deployment is mentioned in associated documentation, but only as to when the aircraft were scheduled to arrive in Thailand, not when they departed.[53] Also, the official aircraft records show both aircraft as transferred to Napier Field, Alabama, where they were still listed as an NC-123K as of December 1972. The purpose of this transfer is unclear.[50] That the official history notes a "munitions accident" on 19 March 1969 in the chronology, but without any details as to the fate of aircraft or which aircraft was affected, adds additional confusion.[44]
It is also suggested that the Black Spot aircraft were never intended to be used in combat. After the Operation Trial and Evaluation, it was found that the aircraft were not suitably protected and survivable for protracted use in combat zones. No C-130 aircraft are known to have been converted to a Black Spot II standard.
Tropic Moon III
Shed Light's Second phase eventually turned out to be based on the B-57. B-57 aircraft had already been deployed to southeast Asia and had been the subject of initial sensor evaluations under Tropic Moon II. Tropic Moon III was envisioned as an SCNA that made up for the gross shortcomings of Tropic Moon I and II.
Tropic Moon III involved a completely new set of systems, up to date, and infinitely more capable than those previously installed. An entire new aircraft sub-variant, the
In the end the Tropic Moon III proved to be a capable system, both with conventional ordnance and laser guided weapons, day and night. However, the advent of the side-firing gunship threatened the system. The B-57G conducted its first combat missions in October 1970 during
The B-57G was removed from the theatre in May 1972 coinciding with the withdrawal of the bulk of US Air Elements. Plans remained for the continuation of the B-57G program and there were proposals for multiple wings of aircraft to operate in concert with AC-130s and similar aircraft. Post-conflict spending cuts ended this.[64]
Other associated programs
Other programs were also associated with Shed Light, either coming under its wide-reaching charter, or otherwise being observed. Similar mission requirements meant other services were working on developing their own equipment, and the Shed Light Task Force was under orders from the start to survey all other development (see the original 1966 charter).
The
Summary
No report on the effectiveness of Operation Shed Light as a whole exists. It is known that there was some discontent among some of its major participants. General John D. Ryan, Commander in Chief of the Pacific Air Forces, complained following the poor showings from the Tropic Moon II program that he was "tired of buying everything they send us".[16] He then requested that his staff draft a message that would allow him to send "this thing [the Tropic Moon II B-57B] to CONUS [Continental United States]."[16] Even in regards to the development of the Tropic Moon III aircraft, the Aeronautical Systems Division was forced to admit that the myriad of delays in that program had been caused by "reduced quality control" springing from the "crash" nature of the program.[16]
Shed Light was a crash development project, and was largely unguided. It was tasked with research and development of almost any piece of equipment that might help with the mission outlined in its charter. As a result, few of the programs came to fruition and fewer still left a definitive mark on the conflict. The developments under Shed Light were quickly eclipsed by new aircraft produced under Project Gunship (notably under Gunship II and Gunship III). They were fitted with many of the sensors developed under Shed Light, but took on a life all their own. Shed Light's most visible programs, Black Spot and Tropic Moon, have largely fallen into obscurity.
Citations and references
Government Documentation
- Blout, Lt. Col Harry D. Air Operations in Northern Laos 1 Apr – 1 Nov 70. Christiansburg, VA: Dalley Book Service, 1971.
- Boerschig Jr, Charles A. Black Spot Special Activities Report. Ubon, Thailand: Black Spot Task Force, 1969.
- Boerschig Jr, Charles A. Black Spot Weekly Activities Report No.29 (21–27 Feb). Ubon, Thailand: Black Spot Task Force, 1969.
- Dalton, LTC Roy C. Interview with Major Victor Anthony, Major Ralph Rowley, and Riley Sunderland. 8 February 1973.
- Gorski Jr, Major Frank J. Interview with LTC V.H. Gallacher and Maj Lyn R. Officer. Eglin AFB, FL. 5 February 1973.
- Kittinger Jr, Col Joseph W. Interview with Lt Col Robert G. Zimmerman. Washington, DC. 5 September 1974
- Knaack, Marcelle Size. Post-World War II Fighters. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, Headquarters United States Air Force, 1986.
- Nalty, Bernard C. The War Against Trucks: Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos, 1968–1972 Washington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, 2005.
- Pfau, Richard A. and William H. Greenhalgh, Jr. The Air Force in Southeast Asia: The B-57G – Tropic Moon III 1967–1972. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, Headquarters United States Air Force, 1978.
- Smith, C.M. History of the Black Spot Task Force, 29 July 1968 – 11 May 1969. Black Spot Task Force, undated.
- Smith, Mark E. USAF Reconnaissance in South East Asia (1961–66). San Francisco, CA: Headquarters, Pacific Air Force, Department of the Air Force, 1966.
- United States. Aeronautical Systems Division, United States Air Force. Shed Light Program Package Documentation, Volume II. Wright-Patterson, AFB, Ohio: Aeronautical Systems Division, 1966.
- United States. Aeronautical Systems Division, United States Air Force. Shed Light Program Package Documentation, Volume III. Wright-Patterson, AFB, Ohio: Aeronautical Systems Division, 1966.
- United States. DCS Research and Development, Headquarters, United States Air Force. Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report. Washington, DC: Headquarters, United States Air Force, 1966.
- United States. DCS Research and Development, Headquarters, United States Air Force. Volume II Operation Shed Light Study Report. Washington, DC: Headquarters, United States Air Force, 1966.
- United States. Department of Defense. DOD 4120.15-L Model Designation of Military Aircraft, Rockets, and Guided Missiles. Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 1974.
- United States Government, United States Senate. Hearings Before the Electronic Battlefield Subcommittee of the Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1971.
- United States. Headquarters, Department of the Army. FM 1–40 Attack Helicopter Gunnery. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 1969.
- United States. Headquarters, Pacific Air Force, United States Air Force. The F-111 in Southeast Asia September 1972 – January 1973. Christiansburg, VA: Dalley Book Service, 1974.
- United States. USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center, Tactical Air Command, United States Air Force. TAC Center Monthly Status Report, August 1967. Eglin AFB, FL: USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center, Tactical Air Command, United States Air Force, 1967.
- United States. USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center, Tactical Air Command, United States Air Force. TAC Center Monthly Status Report, May 1967. Eglin AFB, FL: USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center, Tactical Air Command, United States Air Force, 1967.
Secondary Sources
- Adcock, Al. C-123 Provider in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1992.
- Davis, Larry. Gunships: A Pictorial History of Spooky. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1982.
- Drendel, Lou. Air War over Southeast Asia, Vol 1. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1982.
- Love, Terry. OV-1 Mohawk in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1989.
- Mesko, Jim. A-26 Invader in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1980.
- A-26 Invader in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1993.
- OV-10 Bronco in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1995.
- VNAF, Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1945–1975. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1987.
- Schlight, John. The War in South Vietnam, the Years of the Offensive, 1965–1968. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force, 1988.
- Sullivan, Jim. Skyraider in Action. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1983.
References
- ^ Schlight, 1988. p. 227
- ^ Baugher, Joseph F. American Military Aircraft. 18 October 2001. Service of AD Skyraider with US Air Force Archived 31 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Access Date: 17 October 2007
- ^ Mesko, 1987. p. 38
- ^ Mesko, 1987. pp. 26–8
- ^ Knaack, 1986. pp. 121–2
- ^ Knaack, 1986. p. 182
- ^ Knaack, 1986. p. 266
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 4
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1A-7
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 7
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-9-11, 15
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-31
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-41
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-46, 48; Note, Smith, 1966, p. 94 mentions this program, but as "Project 1553." One is likely a typo.
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. pp. 10–11
- ^ a b c d e Pfau, Richard A.; Greenhalgh, Jr., William H. (1978). The Air Force in Southeast Asia: The B-57G – Tropic Moon III 1967–1972. Office of Air Force History, Headquarters United States Air Force, Washington, D.C.
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-55, 59
- ^ Kittinger, 1974. p. 40
- ^ Gorski, 1973. p. 51
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1B-13
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1B-44
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-83-5
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 14
- ^ a b United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1C-87
- ^ Adcock, 1992. p. 18
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 8
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 39
- ^ United States, Volume II Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. IIC-147-8
- ^ United States, Volume II Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. IIC-145
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-35
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-80-2
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-93, 98
- ^ Smith, 1966. p. 8
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 30
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 10
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1B-41
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-106
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1E-17, 23
- ^ Knaack, 1986. p. 233
- ^ United States, Shed Light Program Package Documentation, Volume II, 1966. p. C2-5, C2-25-30
- ^ United States, 1969. p. B-3
- ^ United States, TAC Center Monthly Status Report, August 1967, 1966. p. 15
- ISBN 1-85532-259-5
- ^ a b c Smith, undated. p. VI
- ^ a b Smith, undated. p. 6
- ^ a b c d Davis, 1982. p. 50
- ^ a b Smith, undated. p. 7, 32
- ^ Parsch, Andreas. Designation-Systems.net. 31 August 2007. AAU/AAK to AVU/AVK – Equipment Listing. Access Date: 17 September 2007
- ^ Boerschig Jr, Black Spot Weekly Activities Report No.29 (21–27 Feb), 1969. pg. 5
- ^ a b From Individual Aircraft Records Cards Set, provided as part of information received 24 May 2007 pursuant to Freedom of Information Act request 49112, from the Air Force Historical Research Agency, United States Air Force, Maxwell AFB, AL
- ^ Smith, undated. pp. 41–3
- ^ United States, 1974. p. A-18
- ^ Boerschig Jr, Black Spot Special Activities Report, 1969. pg. 5
- ^ United States, Shed Light Program Package Documentation, Volume II, 1966. p. C1-19
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1E-117
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 24
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 29
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 66
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 64
- ^ a b Nalty, 2005. p. 156
- ^ Nalty, 2005. p. 160
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. pp. 45–9
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. p. 70
- ^ Pfau and Greenhalgh, 1978. pp. 91–2
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-110
- ^ United States, Volume I Operation Shed Light Study Report, 1966. p. 1D-114-5, 120
- ^ Love, 1989. p. 34