Ophiocordyceps sinensis
Ophiocordyceps sinensis | |
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Ophiocordyceps sinensis (left) growing out of the head of a dead caterpillar | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Sordariomycetes |
Order: | Hypocreales |
Family: | Ophiocordycipitaceae |
Genus: | Ophiocordyceps |
Species: | O. sinensis
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Binomial name | |
Ophiocordyceps sinensis (
Berk. ) G.H.Sung, J.M.Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora (2007) | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Sphaeria sinensis Berk. (1843) |
Ophiocordyceps sinensis | |||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||
Tibetan | དབྱར་རྩྭ་དགུན་འབུ་ | ||||||
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Nepali name | |||||||
Nepali | यार्सागुम्बा |
Ophiocordyceps sinensis (
O. sinensis parasitizes the larvae of moths within the family Hepialidae, specifically genera found on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas, between elevations of 3,000 and 5,000 metres (10,000 and 16,000 ft). The fungus germinates in the living larva, kills and mummifies it, and then a dark brown stalk-like fruiting body which is a few centimeters long emerges from the corpse and stands upright.
O. sinensis is classified as a
The fruiting bodies of the fungus are not yet cultivated commercially,[8] but the mycelium form can be cultivated in vitro.[9][10] Overharvesting and overexploitation have led to the classification of O. sinensis as an endangered species in China.[11] Additional research needs to be carried out in order to understand its morphology and growth habits for conservation and optimum utilization.
Taxonomic history and systematics
Morphological features
Ophiocordyceps sinensis consists of two parts, a fungal endo
The fertile part of the stroma is the head. The head is granular because of the
Ophiocordyceps (Petch) Kobayasi species produce whole ascospores and do not separate into part spores. This is different from other Cordyceps species, which produce either immersed or superficial perithecia perpendicular to stromal surface, and the ascospores at maturity are disarticulated into part spores.[14] Generally Cordyceps species possess brightly colored and fleshy stromata, but O. sinensis has dark pigments and tough to pliant stromata, a typical characteristic feature of most of the Ophiocordyceps species.[8]
Developments in classification
The species was first described scientifically by
Common names
In Tibet, it is known as yartsa gunbu, དབྱར་རྩྭ་དགུན་འབུ་ (
In India, it is known as keera jhar, keeda jadi, keeda ghas or ghaas fafoond in Nepali, Hindi and Garhwali.
It is known in Chinese as dōng chóng xià cǎo (冬蟲夏草), meaning "winter worm, summer grass", which is a literal translation of the original Tibetan name.
The English term "vegetable caterpillar" is a misnomer, as no plant is involved. "Caterpillar fungus" is a preferred term.
Nomenclature of the anamorph
Since the 1980s, 22 species in 13 genera have been attributed to the
Thus Hirsutella sinensis is considered the validly published anamorph of O. sinensis, Cordyceps nepalensis and C. multiaxialis which had similar morphological characteristics to O. sinensis, also had almost identical or identical ITS sequences and its presumed anamorph, H. sinensis. This also confirms H. sinensis to be anamorph of O. sinensis and suggests C. nepalensis and C. multiaxialis are synonyms.[20] Evidence based on microcyclic conidiation from ascospores and molecular studies[12] support H. sinensis as the anamorph of the caterpillar fungus, O. sinensis.
Ecology and life cycle
The caterpillars prone to infection by O. sinensis generally live 15 cm (5.9 in) underground[21] in alpine grass and shrub-lands on the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas at an altitude between 3,000 and 5,000 m (9,800 and 16,400 ft). The fungus is reported from the northern range of Nepal, Bhutan, and also from the northern states of India, apart from northern Yunnan, eastern Qinghai, eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, southwestern Gansu provinces.[21] Fifty-seven taxa from several genera (37 Thitarodes, 1 Bipectilus, 1 Endoclita, 1 Gazoryctra, 3 Pharmacis, and 14 others not correctly identified to genus[8]) are recognized as potential hosts of O. sinensis.
The stalk-like dark brown to black fruiting body (or mushroom) grows out of the head of the dead caterpillar and emerges from the soil in alpine meadows by early spring.[22] During late summer, the fruiting body disperses spores. The caterpillars, which live underground feeding on roots, are most vulnerable to the fungus after shedding their skin, during late summer. In late autumn, chemicals on the skin of the caterpillar interact with the fungal spores and release the fungal mycelia, which then infects the caterpillar.[21]
The infected larvae tend to remain underground vertical to the soil surface with their heads up. After invading a host larva, the fungus ramifies throughout the host and eventually kills it. Gradually the host larvae become rigid because of the production of fungal sclerotia. Fungal sclerotia are multihyphal structures that can remain dormant and then germinate to produce spores. After overwintering, the fungus ruptures the host body, forming the fruiting body, a sexual sporulating structure (a perithecial stroma) from the larval head that is connected to the sclerotia (dead larva) below ground and grows upward to emerge from the soil to complete the cycle.[23]
The slow growing O. sinensis grows at a comparatively low temperature, i.e., below 21 °C. Temperature requirements and growth rates are crucial factors that distinguish O. sinensis from other similar fungi.
Use in traditional Asian medicines
The use of caterpillar fungus as
The first mention of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in traditional Chinese medicine was in Wang Ang’s 1694 compendium of materia medica, Ben Cao Bei Yao.[26] In the 18th century it was listed in Wu Yiluo's Ben cao cong xin ("New compilation of materia medica").[27] The ethno-mycological knowledge on caterpillar fungus among the Nepalese people is documented.[28] The entire fungus-caterpillar combination is hand-collected for medicinal use.
In traditional Chinese medicine, it is regarded as having an excellent balance of yin and yang as it is considered to be composed of both an animal and a vegetable.[citation needed] They are now cultivated on an industrial scale for their use in traditional Chinese medicine. However, no one has succeeded so far in rearing the fungus by infecting cultivated caterpillars;[8] all products derived from cultured Ophiocordyceps are derived from mycelia grown on grains or in liquids.
Economics and impact
In rural Tibet, yartsa gunbu has become the most important source of cash income. The fungi contributed 40% of the annual cash income to local households and 8.5% to the GDP in 2004. [citation needed] Prices have increased continuously, especially since the late 1990s. In 2008, one kilogram traded for US$3,000 (lowest quality) to over US$18,000 (best quality, largest larvae). The annual production on the Tibetan Plateau was estimated in 2009 at 80–175 tons.[29] The Himalayan Ophiocordyceps production might not exceed a few tons.
In 2004 the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at 30,000 to 60,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal, and about Rs 100,000 in India.[30] In 2011, the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at 350,000 to 450,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal. A 2012 BBC article indicated that in north Indian villages a single fungus was worth Rs 150 (about £2 or $3), which is more than the daily wage of a manual labourer.[31] In 2012, a pound of top-quality yartsa had reached retail prices of $50,000.[32]
The price of Ophiocordyceps sinensis is reported to have increased dramatically on the Tibetan Plateau, about 900% between 1998 and 2008, an annual average of over 20% (after inflation). However, the value of large caterpillar fungus has increased more dramatically than small Cordyceps, regarded as lower quality.[26]
Year | % Price Increase | Price/kg ( Yuan )
|
---|---|---|
1980s | 1,800 | |
1997 | 467% (incl. inflation) | 8,400 |
2004 | 429% (incl. inflation) | 36,000 |
2005 | 10,000–60,000 | |
2013 | 125,000–500,000 |
Because of its high value, inter-village conflicts over access to its grassland habitats has become a headache for the local governing bodies and in several cases people were killed. In November 2011, a court in Nepal convicted 19 villagers over the murder of a group of farmers during a fight over the prized aphrodisiac fungus. Seven farmers were killed in the remote northern district of Manang in June 2009 after going to forage for Yarchagumba.[33]
Its value gave it a role in the
The search for Ophiocordyceps sinensis is often perceived to threaten the environment of the Tibetan Plateau where it grows. While it has been collected for centuries and is still common in such areas, current collection rates are much higher than in historical times.
In the Kingdom of Bhutan, Ophiocordyceps sinensis is recently also being harvested. The quality of the Bhutanese variety has been shown to be equal to the Tibetan one.[35]
Cultivated O. sinensis mycelium is an alternative to wild-harvested O. sinensis, and producers claim it may offer improved consistency. Artificial culture of O. sinensis is typically by growth of pure mycelia in liquid culture (in China) or on grains (in the West).[citation needed]
In Vietnam, according to the statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the production of cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Vietnam in 2022 reached about 1,000 tons,[36] an increase of five times compared to 2017. The selling price of fresh O. sinensis ranges from 10-20 million VND/kg,[37][38] while dried O. sinensis ranges from 100-200 million VND/kg. Therefore, the economic value of cultivated O. sinensis in Vietnam is estimated to be around 10,000 billion VND/year.[39][40][41] In the period 2017-2022, the production of cultivated O. sinensis has grown at an average rate of 40%/year..[42][43]
In India, fuelwood cutting by Ophiocordyceps sinensis collectors near the treeline is reported to be depleting populations of tree species such as of Himalayan birch Betula utilis.[44]
See also
References
- ^ "Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora 2007". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
- ^ Interview with Britt Bunyard on "Newshour". BBC. Sep 9, 2023.
- ^ National Cancer Institute (2011-02-02). "Definition of cordycepin". NCI Drug Dictionary. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
- ^ 《总局关于停止冬虫夏草用于保健食品试点工作的通知 -食药监食监三〔2016〕21号》
- ^
Halpern, Miller (2002). Medicinal Mushrooms. New York, New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-87131-981-4.
- ^ "Caterpillar Fungus: The Viagra of the Himalayas". NPR.org.
- ^ a b Yong, Ed (2018-10-22). "The World's Most Valuable Parasite Is in Trouble. And so are the livelihoods of the people who depend on it". The Atlantic.
- ^ a b c d e Hsieh, C., et al., A Systematic Review of the Mysterious Caterpillar Fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Dong-ChongXiaCao and Related Bioactive Ingredients. Vol. 3. 2013. 16–32.
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- ^ Saccardo PA. (1878). "Enumeratio Pyrenomycetum Hypocreaceorum hucusque cognitorum systemate carpologico dispositorum" (PDF). Michelia (in Latin). 1 (3): 277–325.
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- ^ Hill H. Art. XXXVI: The Vegetable Caterpillar (Cordiceps robertsii). Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Vol 34, 1901;396–401
- ^ Jiang, Y. Y., & Yao, Y. J. (n.d). Names related to Cordyceps sinensis anamorph. Mycotaxon, 84245-254.
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- ^ Winkler D. (2008). "The mushrooming fungi market in Tibet exemplified by Cordyceps sinensis and Tricholoma matsutake". Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies (4).
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- ^ Wu Y (1757). "Ben cao cong xin" – "New compilation of materia medica" (in Chinese).
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- ^ Sharma S. (2004). "Trade of Cordyceps sinensis from high altitudes of the Indian Himalaya: Conservation and biotechnological priorities" (PDF). Current Science. 86 (12): 1614–9.
- ^ Jeffrey, Craig (2012-07-07). "The 'Viagra' transforming local economies in India". BBC News. Retrieved July 9, 2012.
- ^ Finkel, M. (2012) Tibet’s Golden "Worm", National Geographic, August 2012
- ^ Staff (14 November 2011) 'Himalayan viagra': Six men get life for Nepal murders BBC News Asia, Retrieved 9 July 2012
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Further reading
- Winkler, D. 2005. Yartsa Gunbu – Cordyceps sinensis. Economy, Ecology & Ethno-mycology of a Fungus Endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. In: A. BOESI & F. CARDI (eds.). Wildlife and plants in traditional and modern Tibet: Conceptions, Exploitation and Conservation. Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Vol. 33.1:69–85.
- Zhang Y.; Zhang S.; Wang M.; Bai F.; Liu X. (2010). "High Diversity of the Fungal Community Structure in Naturally-Occurring Ophiocordyceps sinensis". PMID 21179540.
- Lu D. (2023). The Global Circulation of Chinese Materia Medica, 1700-1949: A Microhistory of the Caterpillar Fungus. Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–294. S2CID 256618310.
External links
- Media related to Ophiocordyceps sinensis at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Cordyceps sinensis at Wikispecies
- Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) in Tibet
- An Electronic Monograph of Cordyceps and Related Fungi Archived 2014-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
- Cordyceps information from Drugs.com
- Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University) (in English) (in Chinese)
- Tibet’s Golden "Worm" August 2012 National Geographic (magazine)