Criticism of Islam

Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs Oneness of God Angels Revealed Books Prophets Day of Resurrection Predestination
Practices Profession of Faith Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage
Texts Foundations Quran Sirah ) Tafsir (exegesis) Aqidah (creed) Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets") Mathnawi (Poems) Fiqh (jurisprudence) Sharia (law)
History Timeline Muhammad Ahl al-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Caliphate Imamate Medieval Islamic science Spread of Islam Succession to Muhammad
Culture and society Academics Animals Art Association football Calendar Children Circumcision Demographics Diaspora Denominations Sunni Shia Economics Education Ethics Exorcism Feminism Festivals Finance Madrasa Moral teachings Mosque Music Mysticism Philosophy Poetry Politics Proselytizing Science Sexuality LGBT Slavery Social welfare Women
Related topics Apostasy Criticism Muhammad Quran Hadith Arabic language Other religions Islamism Violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Laws of war Glossary
Islam portal
v t e

This article is of a series on
Criticism of religion
By religion Baháˈí Faith Buddhism Christianity Catholic Jehovah's Witnesses Latter Day Saint movement Protestantism Seventh-day Adventist Unification movement Westboro Baptist Church Hinduism Swaminarayan sect Islam Islamism Twelver Shia Islam Wahhabism Jainism Judaism Monotheism New religious movement Neopaganism Scientology Sikhism Yazdânism Zoroastrianism
By religious figure Aisha Charles Taze Russell Ellen White Jesus Moses Muhammad Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Saul
By text Bible Quran Hadith Mormon sacred texts Book of Mormon Talmud
Religious violence Buddhism Christianity Mormonism Judaism Islam Terrorism Christian Hindu Islamic Jewish Persecution Christian thought on persecution and tolerance War In Islam In Judaism Sectarian violence By country India Anti-Christian violence In Odisha Nigeria Pakistan
Bibliographies Christianity Islam Judaism Mormonism Scientology
Related topics Abuse Apostasy In Islam In Christianity Criticism of atheism Criticism of monotheism Sexuality Slavery Superstitions Muslim Jewish
v t e

Criticism of Islam, including of Islamic beliefs, practices, and doctrines, can take many forms, including academic critiques, political criticism, religious criticism, and personal opinions.

Criticism of Islam has been present since its formative stages, with early disapprovals recorded from Christians, Jews, and some former Muslims like Ibn al-Rawandi.^[1] Subsequently, the Muslim world itself faced criticism after the September 11 attacks.^[2][3][4][5]

Criticism has been aimed at the life of

Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights in the Islamic world, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.^[5] As of 2014, about a quarter of the world's countries and territories (26%) had anti-blasphemy and (13%) had anti-apostasy laws or policies.^[15] In 2017, 13 Muslim countries had the death penalty for apostasy or blasphemy.^[16][17][18] Amid the contemporary embrace of multiculturalism, there has been criticism regarding how Islam may affect the willingness or ability of Muslim immigrants to assimilate in host nations.^[19][20]

Historical background

The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are found in the writings of Christians, such as John of Damascus who was familiar with Islam and Arabic, who came under the early dominion of the Islamic caliphate.^[21] Other notable early critics of Islam included Abu Isa al-Warraq, a ninth-century scholar and critic of Islam, Ibn al-Rawandi, a ninth-century atheist, who repudiated Islam and criticized religion in general,^[22]: 224 al-Ma'arri, an eleventh-century Arab poet and critic of all religions who was known for his veganism and antinatalism^{[23][24][25][26]} Jews similarly passed on criticism on Muhammad by oral-traditions.^[27]

There have been several notable critics and skeptics of Islam from within the Islamic world, including the blind poet

During the Middle Ages, Christian church officials commonly represented Islam as idolatry or a counterfeit religion propelled by Satan. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe, some academics attempted to exoticize Islam by portraying it as an Eastern religion that was distinct from the West and the religions of Judaism and Christianity. Others classified it as a "Semitic" religion, in contrast to the Indo-European religions, which included Christianity. Many academics in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries referred to Islam as Mohammedanism,^[31] which allowed them to criticize Islam by criticizing Muhammad's actions. Such criticisms rendered Islam as only a derivative of Christianity and not, as Islam itself claims, as the successor of Abrahamic monotheisms, in contrast to the Christian idea of Christ's perfection.^[32] By contrast, many academics nowadays study Islam as an Abrahamic religion in relation to Judaism and Christianity.^[31]

Points of criticism

The expansion of Islam

In an alleged dialogue between the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) and a Persian scholar, the emperor criticized Islam as a faith spread by the sword.^[33] This matches the common view in Europe during the Enlightenment period about Islam, then synonymous with the Ottoman Empire, as a bloody, ruthless, and intolerant religion.^[34] More recently, in 2006, a similar statement of Manuel II,^[a] quoted publicly by Pope Benedict XVI, prompted a negative response from Muslim figures who viewed the remarks as an insulting mischaracterization of Islam.^[35][36] In this vein, the Indian social reformer Pandit Lekh Ram (d. 1897) thought that Islam was grown through violence and desire for wealth,^[37] while the Nigerian author Wole Soyinka considers Islam as a "superstition" that it is mainly spread with violence and force.^[38]

This "conquest by the sword" thesis is opposed by some historians who consider the transregional development of Islam a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon.^[31] The first wave of expansion, the migration of the early Muslims to Medina to escape persecution in Mecca and the subsequent conversion of Medina, was indeed peaceful. In the years to come, Muslims defended themselves against frequent Meccan incursions until Mecca's peaceful surrender in 630. By the time of his death in 632, many of the Arabian tribes had formed political alliances with Muhammad and adopted Islam peacefully, which also paved the way for the subsequent conquests of Syria, Iran, Egypt and (the rest of North Africa) after the death of Muhammad.^[31] Islam nevertheless often remained a minority religion in conquered territories for several centuries after the initial waves of conquest, indicating that the conquest of territories beyond the Arabian Peninsula did not instantly result in large conversions to Islam.^[b][31]

Other religions' views

Many early Christian authors viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms.^[39] They criticized Islam as a material, rather than spiritual, religion for its sensual descriptions of paradise, even though such descriptions were present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of Irenaeus, a second-century bishop. The Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Later, however, the doctrines of the Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasures in this life and the afterlife.^[40]

In his essay Islam Through Western Eyes, the cultural critic Edward Said suggests that the Western view of Islam is particularly hostile for a range of religious, psychological and political reasons, all deriving from a sense "that so far as the West is concerned, Islam represents not only a formidable competitor but also a late-coming challenge to Christianity." In his view, the general basis of Orientalist thought forms a study structure in which Islam is placed in an inferior position as an object of study, thus forming a considerable bias in Orientalist writings as a consequence of the scholars' cultural make-up.^[50]

Scripture

Criticism of the Quran

In the lifetime of Muhammad, the Quran was primarily preserved orally and the written compilation of the whole Quran in its current form took place some 150 to 300 years later, according to some sources.

Pre-existing sources

Critics point to various pre-existing sources to argue against the

Criticism of the Hadith

Main article:

Criticism of Hadith

It has been suggested that there exists around the Hadith (Muslim traditions relating to the Sunnah (words and deeds) of Muhammad) three major sources of corruption: political conflicts, sectarian prejudice, and the desire to translate the underlying meaning, rather than the original words verbatim.^[76]

Muslim critics of the hadith,

was among these critics and was denounced by thousand orthodox clerics as a 'kafir', a non-believer.^[79] In his work Maqam-e Hadith he considered any hadith that goes against the teachings of Quran to have been falsely attributed to the Prophet.^[80] Kassim Ahmad in his "Hadith: A Re-evaluation" suggested that "the hadith are sectarian, anti-science, anti-reason and anti-women."^[81][82]

According to John Esposito "Modern Western scholarship has seriously questioned the historicity and authenticity of the hadith", and that Joseph Schacht "found no evidence of legal traditions before 722," from which Schacht concluded that "the Sunna of the Prophet is not the words and deeds of the Prophet, but apocryphal material" dating from later.^[83] Other scholars, however, such as Wilferd Madelung, have argued that "wholesale rejection as late fiction is unjustified".^[84] Orthodox Muslims do not deny the existence of false hadith, but believe that through the scholars' work, these false hadith have been largely eliminated.^[85]

Lack of secondary evidence

Sana'a manuscripts

of the Quran

The traditional view of Islam has also been criticised for the lack of supporting evidence consistent with that view, such as the lack of archaeological evidence, and discrepancies with non-Muslim literary sources.^[86] In the 1970s, what has been described as a "wave of sceptical scholars" challenged a great deal of the received wisdom in Islamic studies.^[87]: 23 They argued that the Islamic historical tradition had been greatly corrupted in transmission. They tried to correct or reconstruct the early history of Islam from other, presumably more reliable, sources such as coins, inscriptions, and non-Islamic sources. The oldest of this group was John Wansbrough.^[87]: 38

Criticism of Muhammad

The Christian missionary

Islamic ethics

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, while there is much to be admired and affirmed in Islamic ethics, its originality or superiority is rejected.^[97] Critics stated that the

Some critics argue that the Quran is incompatible with other religious scriptures as it attacks and advocates hate against people of other religions. Harris argues that Muslim extremism is simply a consequence of taking the Quran literally, and is skeptical that moderate Islam is possible.[c]^[127] Max I. Dimont interprets that the Houris described in the Quran are specifically dedicated to "male pleasure".^[128] According to Pakistani Islamic scholar Maulana Umar Ahmed Usmani "Hur" or "hurun" is the plural of both "ahwaro" which is a masculine form and also "haurao" which is a feminine, meaning both pure males and pure females. Basically, the word 'hurun' means white, he says.^[129] Henry Martyn claims that the concept of the Houris was chosen to satisfy Muhammad's followers.^[130]

Views on slavery

According to

Brockopp, on the other hand believe that the idea of using alms for the manumission of slaves appears to be unique to the Quran (^[

Critics argue unlike Western societies there have been no anti-slavery movements in Muslim societies,[137] which according to Gordon was due to the fact that it was deeply anchored in Islamic law, thus there was no ideological challenge ever mounted against slavery.^[138] According to sociologist Rodney Stark, "the fundamental problem facing Muslim theologians vis-à-vis the morality of slavery" is that Muhammad himself engaged in activities such as purchasing, selling, and owning slaves, and that his followers saw him as the perfect example to emulate. Stark contrasts Islam with Christianity, writing that Christian theologians wouldn't have been able to "work their way around the biblical acceptance of slavery" if Jesus had owned slaves, as Muhammad did.^[139]

Only in the early 20th century did slavery gradually became outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, with Muslim-majority Mauritania being the last country in the world to formally abolish slavery in 1981.^[8] Murray Gordon characterizes Muhammad's approach to slavery as reformist rather than revolutionary that abolish slavery, but rather improved the conditions of slaves by urging his followers to treat their slaves humanely and free them as a way of expiating one's sins.^[140] In Islamic jurisprudence, slavery was theoretically an exceptional condition under the dictum The basic principle is liberty.^[141][9] Reports from Sudan and Somalia showing practice of slavery is in border areas as a result of continuing war

most Muslim scholars found the practice "inconsistent with Qur'anic morality".[147]^[148][149]

Apostasy

In Islam, apostasy along with heresy and blasphemy (verbal insult to religion) is considered a form of disbelief. The Qur'an states that apostasy would bring punishment in the Afterlife, but takes a relatively lenient view of apostasy in this life (Q 9:74; 2:109).^[150] While Shafi'i interprets verse

According to Also Sunni and Shi'a scholars, agree on the difference of punishment between male and female.^[159]

Some widely held interpretations of Islam are inconsistent with Human Rights conventions that recognize the right to change religion.^[160] In particular article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights^[161] Some contemporary Islamic jurists, such as Hussein-Ali Montazeri^[162] have argued or issued fatwas that state that either the changing of religion is not punishable or is only punishable under restricted circumstances.^[163] According to Yohanan Friedmann, "The real predicament facing modern Muslims with liberal convictions is not the existence of stern laws against apostasy in medieval Muslim books of law, but rather the fact that accusations of apostasy and demands to punish it are heard time and again from radical elements in the contemporary Islamic world."^[164]

Sadakat Kadri noted that "state officials could not punish an unmanifested belief even if they wanted to".^[165] The kind of apostasy which the jurists generally deemed punishable was of the political kind, although there were considerable legal differences of opinion on this matter.^[166] Wael Hallaq states that "[in] a culture whose lynchpin is religion, religious principles and religious morality, apostasy is in some way equivalent to high treason in the modern nation-state".^[167] Also Bernard Lewis consider the apostasy as a treason and "a withdrawal, a denial of allegiance as well as of religious belief and loyalty".^[168] The English historian

While in 13 Muslim-majority countries atheism is punishable by death,[170] according to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, executions were rare because "it was widely believed" that any accused apostate "who repented by articulating the shahada" (LA ILAHA ILLALLAH "There is no God but God") "had to be forgiven" and their punishment delayed until after Judgement Day.^[171][172]

Islam and violence

Quran's teachings on matters of war and peace have become topics of heated discussion in recent years. On the one hand, some critics claim that certain verses of the Quran sanction military action against unbelievers as a whole both during the lifetime of Muhammad and after.^[107] The Quran says, "...cast terror in their hearts and strike upon their necks." (8:12)^[174] Also that "Fight in the name of your religion with those who fight against you."^[107]

[178]^[179] It is perceived in a military sense (not spiritual sense) by

Most Muslim scholars, on the other hand, argue that such verses of the Quran are interpreted out of context,[187]^[188] and argue that when the verses are read in context it clearly appears that the Quran prohibits aggression,^{[189][190][191]} and allows fighting only in self-defense.^[192][193] Charles Mathewes characterizes the peace verses as saying that "if others want peace, you can accept them as peaceful even if they are not Muslim." As an example, Mathewes cites the second sura, which commands believers not to transgress limits in warfare: "fight in God's cause against those who fight you, but do not transgress limits [in aggression]; God does not love transgressors" (2:190).^[194]

Orientalist David Margoliouth described the Battle of Khaybar as the "stage at which Islam became a menace to the whole world".^[195] In the battle reportedly Muslims beheaded Jews.^[196][197] Margoliouth argues that the Jews of Khaybar had done nothing to harm Muhammad or his followers, and ascribes the attack to a desire for plunder^[195][198]

Vaglieri and

The September 11 attacks have resulted in many non-Muslims' indictment of Islam as a violent religion.^[202] In the European view, Islam lacked divine authority and regarded the sword as the route to heaven.^[34]

Karen Armstrong, tracing what she believes to be the West's long history of hostility toward Islam, finds in Muhammad's teachings a theology of peace and tolerance. Armstrong holds that the "holy war" urged by the Quran alludes to each Muslim's duty to fight for a just, decent society.^[203] According to Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the 20th-century Indian independence movement, although non-violence is dominant in the Qur'an, thirteen hundred years of imperialist expansion have made Muslims a militant body.^{[204][205][206]}

Other self-described Muslim organisations have emerged more recently, and some of them have been associated with jihadist and extreme Islamist groups. Compared to the entire Muslim community, these groups are sparsely populated. They have, however, received more attention from governments, international organisations, and the international media than other Muslim groups. This is as a result of their participation in actions intended to combat alleged enemies of Islam both at home and abroad.^[31]

Years later however, Al-Qaeda has yet to succeed in gaining the support of the majority of Muslims and continues to differ from other Islamist organizations in terms of both philosophy and strategy.^[31]

Marriage

Homosexuality

In 10 Muslim-majority countries homosexual acts may be punishable by death, though in some the punishment has never been carried out.^[207] The ex-Muslim Ibn Warraq states that the Quran's condemnation of homosexuality has frequently been ignored in practice, and that Islamic countries were much more tolerant of homosexuality than Christian ones until fairly recently.^[208]

Short-term marriage

Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah is a fixed-term or short-term contractual

Shia contest the criticism that nikah mut'ah is a cover for prostitution, and argue that the unique legal nature of temporary marriage distinguishes Mut'ah ideologically from prostitution.[214]^[215] Children born of temporary marriages are considered legitimate, and have equal status in law with their siblings born of permanent marriages, and do inherit from both parents. Women must observe a period of celibacy (idda) to allow for the identification of a child's legitimate father, and a woman can only be married to one person at a time, be it temporary or permanent. Some Shia scholars also view Mut'ah as a means of eradicating prostitution from society.^[216]

Contractually limited marriage

Nikah Misyar is a type of

) manner when they please. Misyar has been suggested by some western authors to be a comparable marriage with Nikah mut'ah and that they find it for the sole purpose of "sexual gratification in a licit manner"^{[218][219][220]} Islamic scholars like

Age of Muhammad's wife Aisha

According to Sunni

Women in Islam

The meaning of Quran 4:34 has been the subject of intense debate among experts. While many scholars^[234][235] claim Shari'a law encourages domestic violence against women,^{[236][237][238]} many Muslim scholars arguing that it acts as a deterrent against domestic violence motivated by rage.^[239][240] Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws such as rights of women in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody which was described as discriminatory against women from a human rights perspective in a 2011 UNICEF report.^[241] Allowing girls under 18 to marry by religious courts is another criticism of Islam^[242] Sharia grants women the right to inherit property^[243] but a daughter's inheritance is usually half that of her brother's but that is because the brother needs to care of his family and her sister if a male guardian isn't present and take care of her needs.^{[Quran 4:11][244]} Furthermore, slave women were not granted the same legal rights.^{[245][246][247][248]} Under classical Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves without their consent.^[249][250] The master is subject to several limitations nevertheless; for example, he is not permitted to cohabitate with a female slave who belongs to his wife or engage in romantic contact with a female slave who is a joint owner or who is already married.^[8] On 14 January 2009, the Catholic Portuguese cardinal José Policarpo directed a warning to young women to "think twice" before marrying Muslim men.^[251][252]

In contrast to the widespread Western belief that women in Muslim societies are oppressed and denied opportunities to realize their full potential, many Muslims believe their faith to be liberating or fair to women, and some find it offensive that Westerners criticize it without fully understanding the historical and contemporary realities of Muslim women's lives. Conservative Muslims in particular (in common with some Christians and Jews) see women in the West as being economically exploited for their labor, sexually abused, and commodified through the media's fixation on the female body.^[253]

Islam and multiculturalism

Muslim immigration to Western countries has led some critics to label Islam incompatible with secular Western society.^[254][255] This criticism has been partly influenced by a stance against multiculturalism closely linked to the heritage of New Philosophers. Recent critics include the Pascal Bruckner^{[256][257][258][259]} and Paul Cliteur.^[260] Tatar Tengrist criticize Islam as a semitic religion, which forced Turks to submission to an alien culture. Further, since Islam mentions semitic history as if it were the history of all mankind, but disregards components of other cultures and spirituality, the international approach of Islam is seen as a threat.^[261] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Turkish Republic, described Islam as the religion of the Arabs that loosened the national nexus of Turkish nation, got national excitement numb.^[262]

In the early 20th century, the prevailing view among Europeans was that Islam was the root cause of Arab "backwardness". They saw Islam as an obstacle to assimilation, a view that was expressed by one of the spokesmen of colonial French Algeria named André Servier.^[263] The Victorian orientalist scholar Sir William Muir criticised Islam for what he perceived to be an inflexible nature, which he held responsible for stifling progress and impeding social advancement in Muslim countries.^[264]

Jocelyne Cesari, in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe,^[265] finds that anti-Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries, xenophobia overlaps with Islamophobia, and a person may have one, the other, or both.^[266]

See also

References

Footnotes

Citations

1. Migne. Patrologia Graeca
   , vol. 94, 1864, cols 763–73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in The Moslem World for October 1954, pp. 392–98.
2. ^
   ISBN 1-59102-068-9
   .
3. ^ Ibn Kammuna, Examination of the Three Faiths, trans. Moshe Perlmann (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971), pp. 148–49
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Mohammed and Mohammedanism, by Gabriel Oussani, Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
5. ^
   ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4
   .
6. ^ ^{a b} Ibn Warraq, The Quest for Historical Muhammad (Amherst, Mass.:Prometheus, 2000), 103.
7. ^ ^{a b} Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
8. ^
   Encyclopedia of Islam
9. ^ ^{a b} Dror Ze'evi (2009). "Slavery". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
10. ^ Focus on the slave trade, in BBC News.
11. ^ The persistence of history, in The Economist
12. ISBN 9780300198171
    .
13. ^ Fitzgerald, Timothy (2000). The Ideology of Religious Studies. New York: Oxford University Press (published 2003). p. 235.
    ISBN 9780195347159
    . Retrieved 30 April 2019. [...] this book consists mainly of a critique of the concept of religion [...].
14. ^ Ruthven, Malise. "Voltaire's Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet:A New Translation; Preface: Voltaire and Islam". Retrieved 12 August 2015.
15. ^ Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?, Pew Research Center, 29 July 2016.
16. ^ Doré, Louis (May 2017). "The countries where apostasy is punishable by death". The Independent. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
17. ^ "Saudi Arabia". Archived from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2006.
18. ^ Timothy Garton Ash (5 October 2006). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books.
19. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5
    .
20. ^ Russia and Islam: State, Society and Radicalism. Taylor & Francis. 2010. p. 94. by Roland Dannreuther, Luke March
21. ^ ^{a b} "St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
22. ISBN 0-06-009795-7
    .
23. ^ Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, 1962, A Literary History of the Arabs, p. 319. Routledge
24. ^ "Abu-L-Ala al-Maarri Facts". biography.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
25. ^ Adamson, Peter (1 November 2021). "Abu Bakr al-Razi". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
26. ^ "Is Islam Hostile to Science?". Adventure. 28 February 2015. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021.
27. doi:10.3390/rel10010063
    .
28. ISBN 0-8078-2952-8
    .
29. ^
    ISBN 0-87975-984-4
30. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
31. ^
    ISBN 9781438126968
    .
32. ISBN 9781438126968
    .
33. ^ Dialogue 7 of Twenty-six Dialogues with a Persian (1399), for the Greek text see Trapp, E., ed. 1966. Manuel II. Palaiologos: Dialoge mit einem "Perser." Wiener Byzantinische Studien 2. Vienna, for a Greek text with accompanying French translation see Th. Khoury "Manuel II Paléologue, Entretiens avec un Musulman. 7e Controverse", Sources Chrétiennes n. 115, Paris 1966, for an English translation see Manuel Paleologus, Dialogues with a Learned Moslem. Dialogue 7 (2009), chapters 1–18 (of 37), translated by Roger Pearse available at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library here, at The Tertullian Project here, and also here Archived 11 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. A somewhat more complete translation into French is found here Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
34. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-925188-9
    .
35. ^ "In quotes: Muslim reaction to Pope". 16 September 2006 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
36. ^ "Pope sorry for offending Muslims". 17 September 2006 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
37. ^ "Américo Castro and the Meaning of Spanish Civilization", by José Rubia Barcia, Selma Margaretten, p. 150.
38. ^ "Debating the African Condition: Race, gender, and culture conflict", by Alamin M. Mazrui, Willy Mutunga, p. 105
39. ISBN 9789004116955
    .
40. ^
    ISBN 9780521506373
    pp. 18–20
41. ^ G. K. Chesterton, The Everlasting Man, 1925, Chapter V, The Escape from Paganism, Online text
42. ^ Villis, Tom (2019). "G. K. Chesterton and Islam". Research Gate. Modern Intellectual History. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
43. ^ Russell, Paul; Kraal, Anders (2017). "Hume on Religion". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
44. ISBN 978-1-134-60914-7
    .
45. ISBN 9781461636212
    p. 65.
46. ^ The Mind of Maimonides, by David Novak. Retrieved 29 April 2006.
47. ISBN 9783406379819
    p. 215
48. ISBN 9789004307834
    p. 61
49. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
50. ^ Edward W. Said (2 January 1998). "Islam Through Western Eyes". The Nation.
51. ^ Yehuda D. Nevo "Towards a Prehistory of Islam," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, vol.17, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1994 p. 108.
52. ^ John Wansbrough The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1978 p. 119
53. ^ Patricia Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Princeton University Press, 1987 p. 204.
54. ^ Modarressi 1993, pp. 16–18.
55. ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 14.
56. ^ Pakatchi 2015.
57. ^ See the verses Quran 2:2, Quran 17:88–89, Quran 29:47, Quran 28:49
58. ^ ^{a b} "Koran". From the Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
59. ^ Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, Moshe Sharon, p. 347: Google Preview
60. ^ Wansbrough, John (1977). Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation
61. ^ Wansbrough, John (1978). The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History.
62. ^ Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. (1910). History of the Christian church. Third edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Volume 4, Chapter III, section 44 "The Koran, And The Bible"
63. ^
    ISBN 0-87975-984-4. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 17 January 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
64. ^ ^{a b c} Lester, Toby (January 1999). "What is the Koran?". The Atlantic.
65. ISBN 0-19-881078-4
    .
66. ISBN 0-19-636033-1
67. ISBN 9780062227621
    .
68. ^ Quoted in A. Rippin, Muslims: their religious beliefs and practices: Volume 1, London, 1991, p. 26.
69. ^ G. Luling asserts that a third of the Quran is of pre-Islamic Christian origins, see Über den Urkoran, Erlangen, 1993, 1st ed., 1973, p. 1.
70. ^ ^{a b} Leirvik 2010, pp. 33–34.
71. ^ Leirvik 2010, p. 33.
72. ^ Samuel A. Berman, Midrash Tanhuma-Yelammedenu (KTAV Publishing House, 1996), 31–32.
73. ^ Gerald Friedlander, Pirḳe de-R. Eliezer, (The Bloch Publishing Company, 1916) 156
74. ^ Geisler, N. L. (1999). "Qur'an, Alleged Divine Origin of". In: Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.
75. ^ Did Muhammad Exist? (Why That Question Is Hard to Answer), in richardcarrier.info
76. ^ Brown, Daniel W. "Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought", 1999. pp. 113, 134.
77. ^ Quran, Chapter 6. The Cattle: 38
78. ^ Donmez, Amber C. "The Difference Between Quran-Based Islam and Hadith-Based Islam"
79. ^ Ahmad, Aziz. "Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, 1857–1964". London: Oxford University Press.
80. ^ Pervez, Ghulam Ahmed. Maqam-e Hadith Archived 13 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Urdu version Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine
81. ^ Latif, Abu Ruqayyah Farasat. The Quraniyun of the Twentieth Century, Masters Assertion, September 2006
82. ^ Ahmad, Kassim. "Hadith: A Re-evaluation", 1986. English translation 1997
83. ^ Esposito 1998, p. 67.
84. ISBN 0-521-64696-0
    .
85. ^ By Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza, "Shi'ism", 1988. p. 35.
86. ^ "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". openDemocracy. Archived from the original on 21 April 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
87. ^ ^{a b} Donner, Fred Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing, Darwin Press, 1998
88. ^
    ISSN 1573-3912
    .
89. ^ Uri Rubin, The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf, Oriens, Vol. 32. (1990), pp. 65–71.
90. ^ Ibn Hisham (1955). Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya. Vol. 2. Cairo. pp. 51–57.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) English translation from Stillman (1979), pp. 125–26.
91. ISBN 0-19-881078-4
    . Retrieved 27 May 2010.
92. ^ ""Of the Standard of Taste" by David Hume". home.csulb.edu.
93. ^
    ISBN 9781403983091
    p. 132
94. ISBN 9780814775646
    p. 93–96
95. ^ J. Tolan, Medieval Christian Perceptions of Islam (1996) pp. 100–01
96. ^ J. Tolan, Saracens; Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (2002) p. 75
97. ^ "Mohammed and Mohammedanism". From the Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
98. ^ Kathir, Ibn, "Tafsir of Ibn Kathir", Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 2000, 50–53 – Ibn Kathir states "dharbun ghayru nubrah" strike/admonish lightly
99. doi:10.1163/24685542-12340009
    .
100. ^ Laleh Bakhtiar, The Sublime Quran, 2007 translation
101. ISBN 0-915957-03-5
     .
102. ^ Ammar, Nawal H. (May 2007). "Wife Battery in Islam: A Comprehensive Understanding of Interpretations". Violence Against Women 13 (5): 519–23
103. ^ "Welkom bij Opzij". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
104. ^ Gerber (1986), pp. 78–79
105. ^ "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica
106. ^ Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (pdf), Freedom House, May 2006, pp. 24–25.
107. ^ ^{a b c} Sam Harris Who Are the Moderate Muslims?
108. ^ Understanding the Qurán - Page xii, Ahmad Hussein Sakr - 2000
109. ISBN 978-0199661633
     , pp. 99–109.
110. ^ Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd. pp. 60–1. This tax was not imposed on the Christians, as some would have us think, as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith, but was paid by them in common with the other dhimmīs or non-Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army, in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans. (online)
111. ^ Esposito 1998, p. 34. "They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax (jizya) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the "protected ones" (dhimmi). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians."
112. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
113. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
114. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 13 April 2016. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016.
115. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 30 December 2015. Archived from the original on 30 December 2015.
116. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
117. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
118. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 1 May 2015. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015.
119. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 1 May 2015. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015.
120. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
121. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
122. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 4 June 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
123. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 26 October 2012. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012.
124. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 30 April 2016. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016.
125. ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". 2 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016.
126. Taheri-azar, Mohammed Reza (2006). Letter to The daily Tar Heel  – via Wikisource
     .
127. ISBN 0-393-32765-5
     .
128. ^ The Indestructible Jews, by Max I. Dimont, p. 134
129. ^ "Are all 'houris' female?". Dawn.com. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
130. ^ Controversial Tracts on Christianity and Mohammedanism, by Henry Martyn, p. 131
131. ISBN 0-19-505326-5
     , p. 10.
132. ISBN 0-521-34867-6
     , p. 28
133. ^
     Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
     , Slaves and Slavery
134. ^ John L Esposito (1998) p. 79
135. Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt
     , al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).
136. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3
     .
137. ^ Murray Gordon, "Slavery in the Arab World." New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987, p. 21.
138. ^ Murray Gordon, "Slavery in the Arab World." New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987, pp. 44–45.
139. ISBN 0691114366
140. ISBN 9780941533300
     .
141. ^ Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 26.
142. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, slavery, p. 298
143. ^ "Islamic State Seeks to Justify Enslaving Yazidi Women and Girls in Iraq". Newsweek. 13 October 2014.
144. ^ Allen McDuffee, "ISIS Is Now Bragging About Enslaving Women and Children," The Atlantic, 13 October 2014
145. ^ Salma Abdelaziz, "ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women," CNN, 13 October 2014
146. ^ Richard Spencer, "Thousands of Yazidi women sold as sex slaves 'for theological reasons', says Isil," The Daily Telegraph, 13 October 2014.
147. ^ Abou el Fadl, Great Theft, HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
148. ^ "Department of Economic History" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
149. ^ Khaled Abou El Fadl and William Clarence-Smith
150. ^
     ISBN 9781438126968
     .
151. ^ Quran 2:217
152. ^ W. Heffening, in Encyclopedia of Islam
153. ^ Encyclopedia of the Quran, Apostasy
154. Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Nuh Ha Mim Keller (1368). "A Classic Manual of Islamic Scared Law"
     (PDF). Shafiifiqh.com. p. 517, Chapter O8.0: Apostasy from Islam (Ridda). Retrieved 14 May 2020.
155. Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Nuh Ha Mim Keller (1368). "Reliance of the Traveller"
     (PDF). Amana Publications. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
156. ISBN 9780815627067
     .
157. ISBN 9780415396387
     .
158. ISBN 9780195125597
     .
159. ^ "Murtadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2003.
160. ^ STUDY GUIDE:Freedom of Religion or Belief, in Human Rights Library - University of Minnesota
161. ^ "UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights".
162. ^ Ayatollah Montazeri: "Not Every Conversion is Apostasy", by Mahdi Jami, In Persian, BBC Persian, 2 February 2005. Retrieved 25 April 2006.
163. ^ Grand Ayatollah Hossein-Ali Montazeri: "Not Every Conversion is Apostasy", by Mahdi Jami, In Persian, BBC Persian, 2 February 2005. Retrieved 25 April 2006.
     • What Islam says on religious freedom, by Magdi Abdelhadi, BBC Arab affairs analyst, 27 March 2006. Retrieved 25 April 2006.
     • S. A. Rahman in "Punishment of Apostasy in Islam", Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1972, pp. 10–13
     • The punishment of apostasy in Islam Archived 26 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine, View of Dr. Ahmad Shafaat on apostasy.
     • Religious Tolerance.org, Apostasy (Irtdidad) In Islam, by B.A. Robinson, Religious Tolerance.org, 7 April 2006. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
164. ^ Yohanan Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam, Cambridge University Press, p. 5
165. ISBN 9780099523277
     .
166. ISBN 0199730938
     .
167. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2
     .
168. ^ Lewis, Bernard (21 January 1998). "Islamic Revolution". The New York Review of Books.
169. ^ C. E. Bosworth: Untitled review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 2 (1983), pp. 304–05
170. ^ "Atheists Face Death Penalty In 13 Countries, Discrimination Around The World According To Freethought Report". The Huffington Post. 12 October 2013.
171. ^ Forty Hadiths on the Merit of Saying La Ilaha Illallah Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine| Compiled by Dr. G.F. Haddad| (Hadith 26, Narrated by Bukhari, Muslim, Ahmad, Tayalisi, Abu Dawud, Nasa'i, al-`Adni, Abu `Awana, al-Tahawi, al-Hakim, and Bayhaqi.)
172. ISBN 9780099523277. Archived
     from the original on 2 December 2016.
173. ^ Interview: William Montgomery Watt Archived 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, by Bashir Maan & Alastair McIntosh
174. ^ Warrant for terror: fatwās of radical Islam and the duty of jihād, p. 68, Shmuel Bar, 2006
175. ISBN 978-0-313-36025-1
     . Retrieved 5 January 2011.
176. ISBN 0-87779-044-2
     ., Jihad, p. 571
177. ISBN 0-415-96690-6
     ., Jihad, p. 419
178. ^ John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, p. 93
179. ISBN 0-306-48321-1
     .
180. ^ Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 72.
181. ^ Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam, 2001 Chapter 2
182. ISBN 978-0-520-24203-6
     .
183. ISBN 9781468534290
     .
184. ^ "What If the Orlando Murderer Had Been a Christian?". National Review. 13 June 2016.
185. ^ John Newman, "Islam in the Kālacakra Tantra"^{[permanent dead link]}, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1998
186. ^ "Jihad and the Saudi petrodollar". 15 November 2007 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
187. ^ Sohail H. Hashmi, David Miller, Boundaries and Justice: diverse ethical perspectives, Princeton University Press, p. 197
188. ^ "Khaleel Mohammed". San Diego State University Religious Studies Department. Archived from the original on 8 July 2008.
189. The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
190. ^ Sadr-u-Din, Maulvi. Qur'an and War. The Muslim Book Society, Lahore, Pakistan. p. 8. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
191. ^ Article on Jihad Archived 29 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine by Dr. G. W. Leitner (founder of The Oriental Institute, UK) published in Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1886. ("Jihad, even when explained as a righteous effort of waging war in self-defense against the grossest outrage on one's religion, is strictly limited..")
192. ^ The Qur'anic Commandments Regarding War/Jihad Archived 26 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine An English rendering of an Urdu article appearing in Basharat-e-Ahmadiyya Vol. I, pp. 228–32, by Dr. Basharat Ahmad; published by the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam
193. ^ Maulana Muhammad, Ali. The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad". The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement. pp. 411–13.^{[permanent dead link]}
194. ISBN 9781405133517
     .
195. ^ ^{a b} Margoliouth, D. S. (1905). Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (Third Edition., pp. 362–63). New York; London: G. P. Putnam's Sons; The Knickerbocker Press.
196. ISBN 978-1-136-92114-8
     .
197. ^ Ashath, Hafiz Abu Dawud Sulaiman (12 October 2014). Sunan Abu Dawud (in English and Arabic). Vol. 5. p. 45.
198. ^ He wrote that this became an excuse for unfettered conquest."That plea would cover attacks on the whole world outside Medinah and its neighbourhood: and on leaving Khaibar the Prophet seemed to see the world already in his grasp. This was a great advance from the early days of Medinah, when the Jews were to be tolerated as equals, and even idolators to be left unmolested, so long as they manifested no open hostility. Now the fact that a community was idolatrous, or Jewish, or anything but Mohammedan, warranted a murderous attack upon it: the passion for fresh conquests dominated the Prophet as it dominated an Alexander before him or a Napoleon after him." Margoliouth, D. S. (1905). Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (Third Edition., p. 363). New York; London: G. P. Putnam's Sons; The Knickerbocker Press.
199. ^ Watt 189
200. ^ Veccia Vaglieri, L. "Khaybar", Encyclopaedia of Islam
201. ^ Nomani (1979), vol. II, pg. 156
202. ISBN 9780761933380
     .
203. ISBN 0-06-250886-5
     .
204. ^ The Gandhian Moment, p. 117, by Ramin Jahanbegloo.
205. ^ Gandhi's responses to Islam, p. 110, by Sheila McDonough
206. ^ Cold War Assemblages: Decolonization to Digital, p. 81, Bhakti Shringarpure, Routledge.
207. ^ "Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death". The Washington Post. 16 June 2016.
208. Why I Am Not A Muslim
     , pp. 340–44, Prometheus, New York, 1995
209. ^ Iran talks up temporary marriages, by Frances Harrison, BBC News, Last Updated: 2 June 2007.
     • Temporary 'Enjoyment Marriages' In Vogue Again With Some Iraqis, by Nancy Trejos, The Washington Post, 20 January 2007.
210. ^ Law of desire: temporary marriage in Shi'i Iran, by Shahla Haeri, p. 6.
     • Islam For Dummies, by Malcolm Clark.
     • Islam: a very short introduction, by Malise Ruthven.
211. Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Azim, Volume 1 p. 74 answering-ansar.org Archived 2 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
212. ^ Motahhari, Morteza. "The rights of woman in Islam, Fixed-Term marriage and the problem of the harem". al-islam.org. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
213. ^ "ZAWAJ.COM: Articles and Essays". www.zawaj.com.
214. ^ Temporary marriage, Encyclopædia Iranica
215. ^ "Muta', Temporary Marriage in Islamic Law". www.al-islam.org. 27 September 2012.
216. ^ Said Amir Arjomand (1984), From nationalism to revolutionary Islam, page 171
217. ^ "Misyar Marriage". Fiqh. 6 July 2006. Archived from the original on 4 January 2011.
218. ISBN 9781612046235
     .
219. ISBN 9781599424118
     .
220. ISBN 9780761479277
     . Retrieved 5 April 2013.
221. Al-albany^{[permanent dead link]}) (in Arabic) Yet another marriage with no strings – fatwa committee of al azhar against misyar^{[permanent dead link}
     ]
222. ^ Armstrong 1992, p. 157
223. ^ ^{a b} Spellberg 1996, p. 40
224. ^ Watt 1960
225. ^ Barlas 2002, pp. 125–26
226. ^ Afsaruddin 2014
227. ^ Ali 1997, p. 150
228. ^ Barlas, Asma (2012). "Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an. University of Texas Press. p. 126. On the other hand, however, Muslims who calculate 'Ayesha's age based on details of her sister Asma's age, about whom more is known, as well as on details of the Hijra (the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Madina), maintain that she was over thirteen and perhaps between seventeen and nineteen when she got married. Such views cohere with those Ahadith that claim that at her marriage Ayesha had "good knowledge of Ancient Arabic poetry and genealogy" and "pronounced the fundamental rules of Arabic Islamic ethics.
229. ^ Ali 1997, p. 150.
230. ^ Ayatollah Qazvini. "Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic)". Archived from the original on 26 September 2010.
231. ISBN 978-1-78074-420-9
     .
232. ^ C. (Colin) Turner, Islam: The Basics, Routledge Press, p.34–35
233. ISBN 0-00-723245-4
     .
234. ^ Hajjar, Lisa. "Religion, state power, and domestic violence in Muslim societies: A framework for comparative analysis." Law & Social Inquiry 29.1 (2004); see pp. 1–38
235. ^ Treacher, Amal. "Reading the Other Women, Feminism, and Islam." Studies in Gender and Sexuality 4.1 (2003); pp. 59–71
236. ^ John C. Raines & Daniel C. Maguire (Ed), Farid Esack, What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions, State University of New York (2001), see pp. 201–03
237. ^ "Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim — Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980)". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
238. ^ "Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013.
239. ^ Tesneem Alkiek; Dalia Mogahed; Omar Suleiman; Jonathan Brown (22 May 2017). "Islam and Violence Against Women: A Critical Look at Domestic Violence and Honor Killings in the Muslim Community". Yaqeen Institute. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
240. Washington Post
     .
241. ^ "MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF" (PDF). unicef.org. October 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
242. ^ "Age at First Marriage – Female By Country – Data from Quandl". Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
243. ^ Horrie, Chris; Chippindale, Peter (1991). p. 49.
244. ^ David Powers (1993), Islamic Inheritance System: A Socio-Historical Approach, The Arab Law Quarterly, 8, p 13
245. ^
     • Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?,
       ISBN 0-19-514420-1
       , pp. 82–83;
     • Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.
246. ^ ^{[Quran 16:71]}
247. ^ ^{[Quran 24:33]}
248. ^ ^{[Quran 30:28]}
249. ^ Mazrui, A. A. (1997). Islamic and Western values. Foreign Affairs, pp 118–132.
250. ^ Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.
251. ^ "Portugal cardinal warns of marriage with Muslims". Reuters. 14 January 2009.
252. ^ "Portuguese Catholic Leader: 'Think Twice about Marrying a Muslim'". Der Spiegel. 15 January 2009.
253. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9
     .
254. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5
     .
255. ISBN 978-1621575771
     .
256. ^ Pascal Bruckner – Enlightenment fundamentalism or racism of the anti-racists? appeared originally in German in the online magazine Perlentaucher on 24 January 2007.
257. ^ Pascal Bruckner – A reply to Ian Buruma and Timothy Garton Ash: "At the heart of the issue is the fact that in certain countries Islam is becoming Europe's second religion. As such, its adherents are entitled to freedom of religion, to decent locations and to all of our respect. On the condition, that is, that they themselves respect the rules of our republican, secular culture, and that they do not demand a status of extraterritoriality that is denied other religions, or claim special rights and prerogatives"
258. ^ Pascal Bruckner – A reply to Ian Buruma and Timothy Garton Ash "It's so true that many English, Dutch and German politicians, shocked by the excesses that the wearing of the Islamic veil has given way to, now envisage similar legislation curbing religious symbols in public space. The separation of the spiritual and corporeal domains must be strictly maintained, and belief must confine itself to the private realm."
259. ^ Nazir-Ali, Michael (6 January 2008). "Extremism flourished as UK lost Christianity". The Sunday Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2008.
260. ^ "Paul Cliteur, Moderne Papoea's, Dilemma's van een multiculturele samenleving, De Uitgeverspers, 2002". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007.
261. ISBN 9781136888786
     p. 301–304.
262. ^ Afet İnan, Medenî Bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün El Yazıları, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1998, p. 364.
263. ISBN 978-0-8156-3074-6
     .
264. ^ Asia. 2d ed., rev. and corrected. Published 1909 by E. Stanford in London. p. 458
265. ^ "Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation" (PDF).
266. ^ Mason, Rowena. "Nigel Farage: Indian and Australian immigrants better than eastern Europeans". Theguardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015.

Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Orientalism., Murder of History.. Facts behind the Gossips and Realities. (October 20, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4608350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4608350

Sources

• Brill Online
  . Retrieved 11 January 2015.
• ISBN 978-0913321072
  .
• ISBN 978-0062500144
  .
• Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
• Barlas, Asma (2002). Believing women in Islam : unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur'ān. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
  ISBN 9781477315927
  .
• ISBN 978-0-691-01082-3
  .
• Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 0-19-511234-2
  .
• Lockman, Zachary (2004). Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism. Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-521-62937-9
  .
• Pourjavady, Reza; Schmidtke, Sabine (2006). Pourjavady, Reza; Schmidtke, Sabine (eds.). A Jewish philosopher of Baghdad: 'Izz al-Dawla Ibn Kammūna (d. 683/1284) and his writings. BRILL.
  ISBN 978-90-04-15139-0
  . Retrieved 12 June 2011.
• ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1
  .
• Rispler-Chaim, Vardit (1993). Islamic medical ethics in the twentieth century. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
  ISBN 978-9004096080
  .
• Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003). Women in Islam: The Western Experience. London: Routledge.
• Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). Politics, gender, and the Islamic past : the Legacy of ʻAʼisha bint Abi Bakr. New York: Columbia University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0
  .
• ISBN 978-9004161214
  .
• Westerlund, David (2003). "Ahmed Deedat's Theology of Religion: Apologetics through Polemics". Journal of Religion in Africa. 33 (3): 263–278.
  doi:10.1163/157006603322663505
  .

• Modarressi, Hossein (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica. 77 (77). JSTOR: 5–39.
  JSTOR 1595789
  .
• Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 12–23.
  ISBN 9789004167827
  .
• Pakatchi, A. (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 4. Qur'ān and Ḥadīth Sciences". In
  doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252
  .

Further reading

• Esposito, John L. (1995). The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 0-19-510298-3
  .
• Halliday, Fred (2003). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics of the Middle East. I.B. Tauris, New York.
  ISBN 1-86064-868-1
  .
• Esposito, John L. (2003). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press, USA.
  ISBN 0-19-516886-0
  .
• Geisler, Norman L. (2002). Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross. Baker Books.
  ISBN 0-8010-6430-9
  .
• ISBN 0-674-00877-4
  .
• ISBN 0-674-01575-4
  .
• ISBN 0-87975-984-4
  .
• ISBN 1-59102-068-9
  .
• Cox, Caroline & Marks, John (2003). The 'West', Islam and Islamism: Is ideological Islam compatible with liberal democracy?. Civitas.
  ISBN 1-903 386-29 2
  .
• [Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Orientalism., Murder of History.. Facts behind the Gossips and Realities. (October 20, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4608350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4608350]

External links

• A collection of Muslim Responses To Anti-Islam Polemics
• Media related to Criticism of Islam at Wikimedia Commons

Wikiquote has quotations related to Criticism of Islam.