Mosaic
A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface.[1] Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly popular in the Ancient Roman world.
Mosaic today includes not just murals and pavements, but also artwork, hobby crafts, and industrial and construction forms.
Mosaics have a long history, starting in
Figurative mosaic, but mostly without human figures, was widely used on religious buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islam's first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Such mosaics went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, except for geometrical patterns in techniques such as zellij, which remain popular in many areas.
Modern mosaics are made by artists and craftspeople around the world. Many materials other than traditional stone, ceramic tesserae, enameled and stained glass may be employed, including shells, beads, charms, chains, gears, coins, and pieces of costume jewelry.
Mosaic materials
Traditional mosaics are made of small cubes of roughly square pieces of stone or hand made glass enamel of different colours, known as tesserae. Some of the earliest mosaics were made of natural pebbles, originally used to reinforce floors.[2]
Mosaic skinning (covering objects with mosaic glass) is done with thin enameled glass and opaque stained glass. Modern mosaic art is made from any material in any size ranging from carved stone, bottle caps, and found objects.
History
The earliest known examples of mosaics made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra,
Greek and Roman
Greek figural mosaics could have been copied or adapted paintings, a far more prestigious artform, and the style was enthusiastically adopted by the Romans so that large floor mosaics enriched the floors of
.Most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire; no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across
.There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic:
In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover some surfaces of walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built 64 AD, and wall mosaics are also found at Pompeii and neighbouring sites. However it seems that it was not until the Christian era that figural wall mosaics became a major form of artistic expression. The Roman church of Santa Costanza, which served as a mausoleum for one or more of the Imperial family, has both religious mosaic and decorative secular ceiling mosaics on a round vault, which probably represent the style of contemporary palace decoration.
The mosaics of the
In 1913 the
A specific genre of Roman mosaic was called asaroton (Greek for "unswept floor"). It depicted in trompe-l'œil style the feast leftovers on the floors of wealthy houses.[10]
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ancient Macedonia, late 4th century BC
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A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC
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Aregion of Greece, late 2nd century BC
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A Hellenistic Greek mosaic of a nymph riding on a marine creature, from the Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, Greece, 2nd century BC
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This centaur mosaic was found on the site of the Roman emperorTivoli, Italy. Altes Museum, Berlin.
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Roman mosaic ofBardo Museum, Tunisia
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Cave canem mosaics ('Beware of the dog') were a popular motif for the thresholds of Roman villas
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A small part of The Great Pavement, a Roman mosaic laid in AD 325 at Woodchester, Gloucestershire, England
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Thegladiators, 2nd century AD
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Roman mosaic found at Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester)
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Epiphany ofArcheological Museum of Dion.
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Villa Romana del Casale of Piazza Armerina, 4th century AD
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Antioch-on-the-Orontes
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Triumph of
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Mosaic of Orpheus from Caralis, modern Cagliari (Italy), now in Archeological Museum of Turin
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House of the Neptune Mosaic Casa di Nettuno ed Anfitrite (Ins. V) - Triclinium (dining room) decor
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(Gaziantep Museum of Archeology)(Zeugma)
Christian mosaics
Early Christian art
With the building of Christian
In the following century
A mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from the original 4th-century cathedral of
Ravenna
In the 5th-century Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire, became the center of late Roman mosaic art. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia was decorated with mosaics of high artistic quality in 425–430. The vaults of the small, cross-shaped structure are clad with mosaics on blue background. The central motif above the crossing is a golden cross in the middle of the starry sky. Another great building established by Galla Placidia was the church of San Giovanni Evangelista. She erected it in fulfillment of a vow that she made having escaped from a deadly storm in 425 on the sea voyage from Constantinople to Ravenna. The mosaics depicted the storm, portraits of members of the western and eastern imperial family and the bishop of Ravenna, Peter Chrysologus. They are known only from Renaissance sources because almost all were destroyed in 1747.[12]
After 539 Ravenna was reconquered by the Romans in the form of the
The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by bishop Reparatus between 673 and 79 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with Emperor Constantine IV is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San Vitale.
Butrint
The mosaic pavement of the Vrina Plain basilica of Butrint, Albania appear to pre-date that of the Baptistery by almost a generation, dating to the last quarter of the 5th or the first years of the 6th century. The mosaic displays a variety of motifs including sea-creatures, birds, terrestrial beasts, fruits, flowers, trees and abstracts – designed to depict a terrestrial paradise of God's creation. Superimposed on this scheme are two large tablets, tabulae ansatae, carrying inscriptions. A variety of fish, a crab, a lobster, shrimps, mushrooms, flowers, a stag and two cruciform designs surround the smaller of the two inscriptions, which reads: In fulfilment of the vow (prayer) of those whose names God knows. This anonymous dedicatory inscription is a public demonstration of the benefactors' humility and an acknowledgement of God's omniscience.
The abundant variety of natural life depicted in the Butrint mosaics celebrates the richness of God's creation; some elements also have specific connotations. The kantharos vase and vine refer to the eucharist, the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ leading to salvation. Peacocks are symbols of paradise and resurrection; shown eating or drinking from the vase they indicate the route to eternal life. Deer or stags were commonly used as images of the faithful aspiring to Christ: "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God." Water-birds and fish and other sea-creatures can indicate baptism as well as the members of the Church who are christened.
Late Antique and Early Medieval Rome
Christian mosaic art also flourished in Rome, gradually declining as conditions became more difficult in the
6th-century pieces are rare in Rome but the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica of
In the 7th–9th centuries Rome fell under the influence of Byzantine art, noticeable on the mosaics of
The fragment of an 8th-century mosaic, the Epiphany is one of the very rare remaining pieces of the medieval decoration of Old St. Peter's Basilica, demolished in the late 16th century. The precious fragment is kept in the sacristy of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. It proves the high artistic quality of the destroyed St. Peter's mosaics.
Byzantine mosaics
Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the Byzantine Empire from the 6th to the 15th centuries. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the surviving remains still form a fine collection.[13]
The great buildings of
were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.Important fragments survived from the mosaic floor of the
In the 6th century, Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the center of mosaic making. Istria also boasts some important examples from this era. The Euphrasian Basilica in Parentium was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting the Theotokos flanked by angels and saints.
Fragments remain from the mosaics of the Church of Santa Maria Formosa in Pola. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different from the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.
Very few early Byzantine mosaics survived the
In the
A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the 870s the so-called large sekreton of the Great Palace of Constantinople was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.
The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the Macedonian Renaissance (867–1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme first used in Emperor Basil I's Nea Ekklesia. Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to church to reconstruct the system.
An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of the Hosios Loukas Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.
The
Another great undertaking by Constantine Monomachos was the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem between 1042 and 1048. Nothing survived of the mosaics which covered the walls and the dome of the edifice but the Russian abbot Daniel, who visited Jerusalem in 1106–1107 left a description: "Lively mosaics of the holy prophets are under the ceiling, over the tribune. The altar is surmounted by a mosaic image of Christ. In the main altar one can see the mosaic of the Exaltation of Adam. In the apse the Ascension of Christ. The Annunciation occupies the two pillars next to the altar."[14]
The Daphni Monastery houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for the Macedonian epoch and represented by the awesome Christ Pantocrator image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of which The Angel before St Joachim — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism – is considered a superb example.
The 9th- and 10th-century mosaics of the
The dome of the
There are very few existing mosaics from the
A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the small tesserae (with sides of 1 mm or less) were set on wax or resin on a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were intended for private devotion. The Louvre Transfiguration is a very fine example from the late 12th century. The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo Nazionale at Florence illustrates the more gentle, humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the 12th century.
The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new Deesis was made on the south gallery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale and superlative craftsmanship. The Hagia Sophia Deesis is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.
The
The
in 1294–96. In the dome is the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and cherubim below.The greatest mosaic work of the
The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and Emperor John V Palaiologos (discovered only in 1989).
In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century are Annunciation in the Victoria and Albert Museum and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury of Florence representing the Twelve Feasts of the Church.
In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with wall-paintings in this era and after the Turkish conquest.
Rome in the High Middle Ages
The last great period of Roman mosaic art was the 12th–13th century when
The great
Sicily
The heyday of mosaic making in
The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the eastern and western styles. The dome (1142–42) and the eastern end of the church (1143–1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics i.e. Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave (Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica in Rome (Latin inscriptions, 1154–66).
The Martorana church (decorated around 1143) looked originally even more Byzantine although important parts were later demolished. The dome mosaic is similar to that of the Cappella Palatina, with Christ enthroned in the middle and four bowed, elongated angels. The Greek inscriptions, decorative patterns, and evangelists in the
In
The Monreale mosaics constitute the largest decoration of this kind in Italy, covering 0,75 hectares with at least 100 million glass and stone tesserae. This huge work was executed between 1176 and 1186 by the order of King William II of Sicily. The iconography of the mosaics in the presbytery is similar to Cefalu while the pictures in the nave are almost the same as the narrative scenes in the Cappella Palatina. The Martorana mosaic of Roger II blessed by Christ was repeated with the figure of King William II instead of his predecessor. Another panel shows the king offering the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.
The
The cathedral of Messina, consecrated in 1197, was also decorated with a great mosaic cycle, originally on par with Cefalù and Monreale, but heavily damaged and restored many times later. In the left apse of the same cathedral 14th-century mosaics survived, representing the Madonna and Child between Saints Agata and Lucy, the Archangels Gabriel and Michael and Queens Eleonora and Elisabetta.
Southern Italy was also part of the Norman kingdom but great mosaics did not survive in this area except the fine mosaic pavement of the Otranto Cathedral from 1166, with mosaics tied into a tree of life, mostly still preserved. The scenes depict biblical characters, warrior kings, medieval beasts, allegories of the months and working activity. Only fragments survived from the original mosaic decoration of Amalfi's Norman Cathedral. The mosaic ambos in the churches of Ravello prove that mosaic art was widespread in Southern Italy during the 11th–13th centuries.
The palaces of the Norman kings were decorated with mosaics depicting animals and landscapes. The secular mosaics are seemingly more Eastern in character than the great religious cycles and show a strong Persian influence. The most notable examples are the Sala di Ruggero in the Palazzo dei Normanni, Palermo and the Sala della Fontana in the Zisa summer palace, both from the 12th century.
Venice
In parts of Italy, which were under eastern artistic influences, like Sicily and Venice, mosaic making never went out of fashion in the Middle Ages. The whole interior of the St Mark's Basilica in Venice is clad with elaborate, golden mosaics. The oldest scenes were executed by Greek masters in the late 11th century but the majority of the mosaics are works of local artists from the 12th–13th centuries. The decoration of the church was finished only in the 16th century. One hundred and ten scenes of mosaics in the atrium of St Mark's were based directly on the miniatures of the Cotton Genesis, a Byzantine manuscript that was brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople (1204). The mosaics were executed in the 1220s.
Other important Venetian mosaics can be found in the
Medieval Italy
The monastery of
The Abbot of Monte Cassino, Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler Leo of Ostia the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided that great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.
In
The impressive mosaic of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of the cathedral of Pisa was designed by Cimabue in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in style. It survived the great fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the medieval interior decoration.
Sometimes not only church interiors but façades were also decorated with mosaics in Italy like in the case of the
Western and Central Europe
Beyond the
Only scant remains prove that mosaics were still used in the Early Middle Ages. The Abbey of Saint-Martial in Limoges, originally an important place of pilgrimage, was totally demolished during the French Revolution except its crypt which was rediscovered in the 1960s. A mosaic panel was unearthed which was dated to the 9th century. It somewhat incongruously uses cubes of gilded glass and deep green marble, probably taken from antique pavements. This could also be the case with the early 9th century mosaic found under the Basilica of Saint-Quentin in Picardy, where antique motifs are copied but using only simple colors. The mosaics in the Cathedral of Saint-Jean at Lyon have been dated to the 11th century because they employ the same non-antique simple colors. More fragments were found on the site of Saint-Croix at Poitiers which might be from the 6th or 9th century.
Later fresco replaced the more labor-intensive technique of mosaic in Western-Europe, although mosaics were sometimes used as decoration on medieval cathedrals. The Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings in
The
In 2003, the remains of a mosaic pavement were discovered under the ruins of the
Renaissance and Baroque
Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by frescoes, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the old technique. Raphael's Creation of the World in the dome of the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo is a notable example that was executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.
During the papacy of
- The old St. Peter's Basilica had been decorated with mosaic, as was common in churches built during the early Christian era; the 17th century followed the tradition to enhance continuity.
- In a church like this with high walls and few windows, mosaics were brighter and reflected more light.
- Mosaics had greater intrinsic longevity than either frescoes or canvases.
- Mosaics had an association with bejeweled decoration, flaunting richness.
The mosaics of St. Peter's often show lively Baroque compositions based on designs or canvases from like Ciro Ferri, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Carlo Maratta, and many others. Raphael is represented by a mosaic replica of this last painting, the Transfiguration. Many different artists contributed to the 17th- and 18th-century mosaics in St. Peter's, including Giovanni Battista Calandra, Fabio Cristofari (died 1689), and Pietro Paolo Cristofari (died 1743).[17] Works of the Fabbrica were often used as papal gifts.
The Christian East
The eastern provinces of the
The single most important piece of Byzantine Christian mosaic art in the East is the Madaba Map, made between 542 and 570 as the floor of the church of Saint George at Madaba, Jordan. It was rediscovered in 1894. The Madaba Map is the oldest surviving cartographic depiction of the Holy Land. It depicts an area from Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Eastern Desert. The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction is Jerusalem, at the center of the map. The map is enriched with many naturalistic features, like animals, fishing boats, bridges and palm trees.
One of the earliest examples of
The Church of Sts. Lot and Procopius was founded in 567 in Nebo village under Mount Nebo (now Khirbet Mukhayyat). Its floor mosaic depicts everyday activities like grape harvest. Another two spectacular mosaics were discovered in the ruined Church of Preacher John nearby. One of the mosaics was placed above the other one which was completely covered and unknown until the modern restoration. The figures on the older mosaic have thus escaped the iconoclasts.[18]
The town of Madaba remained an important center of mosaic making during the 5th–8th centuries. In the Church of the Apostles the middle of the main panel Thalassa, goddess of the sea, can be seen surrounded by fishes and other sea creatures. Native Middle Eastern birds, mammals, plants and fruits were also added.[19]
Important Justinian era mosaics decorated the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. Generally wall mosaics have not survived in the region because of the destruction of buildings but the St. Catherine's Monastery is exceptional. On the upper wall Moses is shown in two panels on a landscape background. In the apse we can see the Transfiguration of Jesus on a golden background. The apse is surrounded with bands containing medallions of apostles and prophets, and two contemporary figure, "Abbot Longinos" and "John the Deacon". The mosaic was probably created in 565/6.
An exceptionally well preserved, carpet-like mosaic floor was uncovered in 1949 in
The
Mosaic art also flourished in Christian Petra where three Byzantine churches were discovered. The most important one was uncovered in 1990. It is known that the walls were also covered with golden glass mosaics but only the floor panels survived as usual. The mosaic of the seasons in the southern aisle is from this first building period from the middle of the 5th century. In the first half of the 6th century the mosaics of the northern aisle and the eastern end of the southern aisle were installed. They depict native as well as exotic or mythological animals, and personifications of the Seasons, Ocean, Earth and Wisdom.[23]
The Arab conquest of the Middle East in the 7th century did not break off the art of mosaic making. Arabs learned and accepted the craft as their own and carried on the classical tradition. During the Umayyad era Christianity retained its importance, churches were built and repaired and some of the most important mosaics of the Christian East were made during the 8th century when the region was under Islamic rule.
The mosaics of the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (now Umm ar-Rasas) were made in 785 (discovered after 1986). The perfectly preserved mosaic floor is the largest one in Jordan. On the central panel hunting and fishing scenes are depicted while another panel illustrates the most important cities of the region. The frame of the mosaic is especially decorative. Six mosaic masters signed the work: Staurachios from Esbus, Euremios, Elias, Constantinus, Germanus and Abdela. It overlays another, damaged, mosaic floor of the earlier (587) "Church of Bishop Sergius." Another four churches were excavated nearby with traces of mosaic decoration.
The last great mosaics in Madaba were made in 767 in the Church of the Virgin Mary (discovered in 1887). It is a masterpiece of the geometric style with a Greek inscription in the central medallion.
With the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750 the Middle East went through deep cultural changes. No great mosaics were made after the end of the 8th century and the majority of churches gradually fell into disrepair and were eventually destroyed. The tradition of mosaic making died out among the Christians and also in the Islamic community.
Orthodox countries
The craft has also been popular in early medieval
Prince
Using mosaics and frescoes in the same building was a unique practice in Ukraine. Harmony was achieved by using the same dominant colors in mosaic and fresco. Both Saint Sophia Cathedral and Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv use this technique.[24] Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the 12th century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches were decorated with frescoes, similarly then orthodox churches in the Balkan.
The apse mosaic of the Gelati Monastery is a rare example of mosaic use in Georgia. Began by king David IV and completed by his son Demetrius I of Georgia, the fragmentary panel depicts Theotokos flanked by two archangels. The use of mosaic in Gelati attests to some Byzantine influence in the country and was a demonstration of the imperial ambition of the Bagrationids. The mosaic covered church could compete in magnificence with the churches of Constantinople. Gelati is one of few mosaic creations which survived in Georgia but fragments prove that the early churches of Pitsunda and Tsromi were also decorated with mosaic as well as other, lesser known sites. The destroyed 6th century mosaic floors in the Pitsunda Cathedral have been inspired by Roman prototypes. In Tsromi the tesserae are still visible on the walls of the 7th-century church but only faint lines hint at the original scheme. Its central figure was Christ standing and displaying a scroll with Georgian text.
Jewish mosaics
Under Roman and Byzantine influence the Jews also decorated their
The remains of a 6th-century synagogue have been uncovered in Sepphoris, which was an important centre of Jewish culture between the 3rd–7th centuries and a multicultural town inhabited by Jews, Christians and pagans. The mosaic reflects an interesting fusion of Jewish and pagan beliefs. In the center of the floor the zodiac wheel was depicted. Helios sits in the middle, in his sun chariot, and each zodiac is matched with a Jewish month. Along the sides of the mosaic are strips depicting Biblical scenes, such as the binding of Isaac, as well as traditional rituals, including a burnt sacrifice and the offering of fruits and grains.
Another zodiac mosaic decorated the floor of the Beit Alfa synagogue which was built during the reign of Justin I (518–27). It is regarded one of the most important mosaics discovered in Israel. Each of its three panels depicts a scene – the Holy Ark, the zodiac, and the story of the sacrifice of Isaac. In the center of the zodiac is Helios, the sun god, in his chariot. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four seasons.
A third superbly preserved zodiac mosaic was discovered in the
In 1936, a synagogue was excavated in
, there is another synagogue (discovered in 1918) from the 6th century that also has a mosaic floor.The synagogue in
The ban on figurative depiction was not taken so seriously by the Jews living in Byzantine
The House of Leontius in
A 5th-century building in
In 2003, a synagogue of the 5th or 6th century was uncovered in the coastal Ionian town of
Middle Eastern and Western Asian art
Christian Arabia
In South Arabia two mosaic works were excavated in a Qatabanian from the late 3rd century, those two plates formed geometric and grapevines formation reflecting the traditions of that culture. In the
Zoroastrian Persia
Tilework had been known there for about two thousand years when cultural exchange between
Islamic art
Arab
was to become the main Islamic form of wall decoration.The first great religious building of Islam, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was built between 688 and 692, was decorated with glass mosaics both inside and outside, by craftsmen of the Byzantine tradition. Only parts of the original interior decoration survive. The rich floral motifs follow Byzantine traditions, and are "Islamic only in the sense that the vocabulary is syncretic and does not include representation of men or animals."[25]
The most important early Islamic mosaic work is the decoration of the
The mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque gave inspiration to later Damascene mosaic works. The Dome of the Treasury, which stands in the mosque courtyard, is covered with fine mosaics, probably dating from 13th- or 14th-century restoration work. The style of them are strikingly similar to the Barada Panel. The mausoleum of Sultan
Non-religious Umayyad mosaic works were mainly floor panels which decorated the palaces of the caliphs and other high-ranking officials. They were closely modeled after the mosaics of the Roman country villas, once common in the Eastern Mediterranean. The most superb example can be found in the bath house of Hisham's Palace, Palestine which was made around 744. The main panel depicts a large tree and underneath it a lion attacking a deer (right side) and two deer peacefully grazing (left side). The panel probably represents good and bad governance. Mosaics with classical geometric motifs survived in the bath area of the 8th-century Umayyad palace complex in Anjar, Lebanon. The luxurious desert residence of Al-Walid II in Qasr al-Hallabat (in present-day Jordan) was also decorated with floor mosaics that show a high level of technical skill. The best preserved panel at Hallabat is divided by a Tree of Life flanked by "good" animals on one side and "bad" animals on the other. Among the Hallabat representations are vine scrolls, grapes, pomegranates, oryx, wolves, hares, a leopard, pairs of partridges, fish, bulls, ostriches, rabbits, rams, goats, lions and a snake. At Qastal, near Amman, excavations in 2000 uncovered the earliest known Umayyad mosaics in present-day Jordan, dating probably from the caliphate of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–705). They cover much of the floor of a finely decorated building that probably served as the palace of a local governor. The Qastal mosaics depict geometrical patterns, trees, animals, fruits and rosettes. Except for the open courtyard, entrance and staircases, the floors of the entire palace were covered in mosaics.[27]
Some of the best examples of later Islamic mosaics were produced in
Mosaics generally went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century. Similar effects were achieved by the use of painted tilework, either geometric with small tiles, sometimes called mosaic, like the
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Complex Mosaic patterns also known asMuslim cultures. Tomb of Hafez, Shiraz, Iran
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The Umayyad mosaics of Hisham's Palace closely followed classical traditions
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Golden mosaics in the dome of theCorduba, Moorish Spain (965–970)
Modern mosaics
Noted 19th-century mosaics include those by
Some modern mosaics are the work of
As a popular craft
Mosaics have developed into a popular craft and art, and are not limited to professionals.[31] Today's artisans and crafters work with stone, ceramics, shells, art glass, mirror, beads, and even odd items like doll parts, pearls, or photographs. While ancient mosaics tended to be architectural, modern mosaics are found covering everything from park benches and flowerpots to guitars and bicycles. Items can be as small as an earring or as large as a house.
Trencadís or pique assiette (a French term – "stolen from plate") is a mosaic made from pieces of broken pottery, china, glass, buttons, figurines, or jewelry which are cemented onto a base to create a new surface. Almost any form can be used as a base, and any combination of pieces can be applied, restricted only by the individual creator's imagination.
In street art
In styles that owe as much to videogame pixel art and pop culture as to traditional mosaic, street art has seen a novel reinvention and expansion of mosaic artwork. The most prominent artist working with mosaics in street art is the French Invader. He has done almost all his work in two very distinct mosaic styles, the first of which are small "traditional" tile mosaics of 8 bit video game character, installed in cities across the globe, and the second of which are a style he refers to as "Rubikcubism", which uses a kind of dual layer mosaic via grids of scrambled Rubik's Cubes. Although he is the most prominent, other street and urban artists do work in Mosaic styles as well.
Calçada Portuguesa
Portuguese pavement (in
Despite its prevalence and popularity throughout Portugal and its former colonies, and its relation to older art and architectural styles like Azulejo, Portuguese and Spanish painted tilework, it is a relatively young mosaic artform, its first definitive appearance in a modernly recognizable form being in the mid-1800s. Among the most commonly used stones in this style are basalt and limestone.
Terminology
Mosaic is an art form which uses small pieces of materials placed together to create a unified whole. The materials commonly used are marble or other stone, glass, pottery, mirror or foil-backed glass, or shells.
The word mosaic is from the Italian mosaico deriving from the Latin mosaicus and ultimately from the Greek mouseios meaning belonging to the
Common techniques include:
- Opus regulatum: A grid; all tesserae align both vertically and horizontally.
- Opus tessellatum: Tesserae form vertical or horizontal rows, but not both.
- Opus vermiculatum: One or more lines of tesserae follow the edge of a special shape (letters or a major central graphic).
- Opus musivum: Vermiculatum extends throughout the entire background.
- Opus palladianum: Instead of forming rows, tesserae are irregularly shaped. Also known as "crazy paving".
- Opus sectile: A major shape (e.g. heart, letter, cat) is formed by a single tessera, as later in pietra dura.
- Opus classicum: When vermiculatum is combined with tessellatum or regulatum.
- Opus circumactum: Tesserae are laid in overlapping semicircles or fan shapes.
- Byzantine iconsand Italian panels for jewellery from the Renaissance on.
Three techniques
There are three main methods: the direct method, the indirect method and the double indirect method.
Direct method
The direct method of mosaic construction involves directly placing (gluing) the individual tesserae onto the supporting surface. This method is well suited to surfaces that have a three-dimensional quality, such as vases. This was used for the historic European wall and ceiling mosaics, following underdrawings of the main outlines on the wall below, which are often revealed again when the mosaic falls away.
The direct method suits small projects that are transportable. Another advantage of the direct method is that the resulting mosaic is progressively visible, allowing for any adjustments to tile color or placement.
The disadvantage of the direct method is that the artist must work directly at the chosen surface, which is often not practical for long periods of time, especially for large-scale projects. Also, it is difficult to control the evenness of the finished surface. This is of particular importance when creating a functional surface such as a floor or a table top.
A modern version of the direct method, sometimes called "double direct," is to work directly onto fiberglass mesh. The mosaic can then be constructed with the design visible on the surface and transported to its final location. Large work can be done in this way, with the mosaic being cut up for shipping and then reassembled for installation. It enables the artist to work in comfort in a studio rather than at the site of installation.
Indirect method
The indirect method of applying tesserae is often used for very large projects, projects with repetitive elements or for areas needing site specific shapes. Tesserae are applied face-down to a backing paper using a water-soluble adhesive. Once the mosaic is completed in the studio it is transferred in sections to the site and cemented, paper facing outwards. Once fixed the paper is dampened and removed. This method is most useful for extremely large projects as it gives the maker time to rework areas, allows the cementing of the tesserae to the backing panel to be carried out quickly in one operation and helps ensure that the front surfaces of the mosaic tiles and mosaic pieces are flat and in the same plane on the front, even when using tiles and pieces of differing thicknesses. Mosaic murals, benches and tabletops are some of the items usually made using the indirect method, as it results in a smoother and more even surface.[33]
Mathematics
The best way to arrange variously shaped tiles on a surface leads to the mathematical field of tessellation.[34]
The artist M. C. Escher was influenced by Moorish mosaics to begin his investigations into tessellation.[35]
Digital imaging
A
A tile mosaic is a digital image made up of individual tiles, arranged in a non-overlapping fashion, e.g. to make a static image on a shower room or bathing pool floor, by breaking the image down into square pixels formed from ceramic tiles (a typical size is 1 in × 1 in (25 mm × 25 mm), as for example, on the floor of the University of Toronto pool, though sometimes larger tiles such as 2 in × 2 in (51 mm × 51 mm) are used). These digital images are coarse in resolution and often simply express text, such as the depth of the pool in various places, but some such digital images are used to show a sunset or other beach theme.
Recent developments in digital image processing have led to the ability to design physical tile mosaics using
Robotic manufacturing
With high cost of labor in developed countries, production
See also
- Pixel art
- Terrazzo
- Tessellation
- Church of the priest Félix and baptistry of Kélibia
References
Notes
- ISBN 0500231427.
- ^ a b Dunbabin 1999, p. 5.
- ^ Iran: Visual Arts: history of Iranian Tile Archived 24 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Iran Chamber Society
- ^ Capizzi, Padre (1989). Piazza Armerina: The Mosaics and Morgantina. International Specialized Book Service Inc.
- ISBN 978-0-8196-2009-5. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ Struck, Peter T. (2009). "MOSAICS". Upenn. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ Smith 1983, pp. 116–119.
- ^ Smith 1983, pp. 121–123.
- ^ "Villa Romana del Casale". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
- ^ "A mosaic floor from a Roman villa at Anaploga" (PDF). Retrieved 3 February 2014.
- ^ Rentetzi 2008.
- ^ "Ravenna". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
- ^ Lowden, John (1997). Early Christian and Byzantine art. Phaidon. (whole book).
- ^ "The Holy Sepulchre – The great destruction of 1009". Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ Some Palatine Aspects of the Cappella Palatina in Palermo, Slobodan Ćurčić, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 41, 139.
- JSTOR 1291693.
- ^ DiFederico, F. R. (1983), The mosaics of Saint Peter's Decorating the New Basilica, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, pp. 3–26.
- ^ "Khirbet al Mukhayat". Archived from the original on 12 May 2008.
- ^ "The Mosaics of the Madaba Plateau of Jordan". Ruth's Jordan Jubilee. Archived from the original on 3 November 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Armenian Mosaic, Jerusalem". Sacred-destinations.com. 2010. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
- ^ "Bethany in Byzantine times I". Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
- ^ "The Monastery of Martyrius". Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
- ^ "Petra Church – Mosaic Floors – Petra, Jordan « Mosaic Art Source". 21 January 2007. Archived from the original on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ "The art of fresco painting in Ukraine". Internet encyclopedia of Ukraine. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
- ^ Jerusalem, Israel Archived 15 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine. sacredsites.com. Retrieved on 12 April 2008.
- ^ Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars Archived 8 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Saudi Aramco World : Mosaic Country". Archived from the original on 27 January 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
- ^ Marianne Barrucand – Achim Bednorz: Moorish Architecture in Andalusia, Taschen, 2002, p. 84
- ^ "Photos of Burne-Jones mosaics in Rome at The Victorian Web".
- ^ "25 Things to Do in St. Louis". Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "How to... Mosaic" (PDF). Hobbycraft. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ "Portuguese Pavements A Calçada Portuguesa". Lisbon Lux. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ "Indirect Method Mosaic studio". 1999. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
- ISBN 0-486-61480-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4042-5117-5.
- ^ "Search Pictures in Mosaic Format". Archived from the original on 13 June 2012.
- S2CID 25493247.
- ^ Beetz, Johannes (12 April 2021). "How to generate Roman style mosaics with Python". Medium. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
- ^ "Automated Custom Mosaics". 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
Citations
- Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (1999). Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00230-1.
- Lowden, John (1997). Early Christian and Byzantine art. Phaidon.
- Rentetzi, Efthalia (9 October 2008). "Parentele stilistiche tra i mosaici pavimentali di s. Maria delle Grazie e s. Eufemia a Grabo. Un'inedita figura di pesce" [Stylistic relationships between the mosaic flooring of s. Maria delle Grazie and s. Eufemia in Grado. An unknown picture of a fish]. Art on web, punti di vista sull'arte (in Italian and English). Translated by Eva Romanò.
- Rentetzi, Efthalia (2009). "Un frammento inedito di S. Eufemia a Grado. Il pavimento musivo del Salutatorium" [An unknown fragment of S.Eufemia to Grado. The mosaic flooring of Salutarium]. Arte Cristiana (in Italian). XCVII (850 January–February 2009): 51–52. Retrieved 3 February 2009.[dead link]
- "Sommari di ARTE CRISTIANA Rivista Internazionale di Storia dell'Arte e di Arti Liturgiche" [Summaries of ARTE CRISTIANA International Journal of art history and liturgical arts]. Arte Cristiana (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 May 2010.
- Rentetzi, Efthalia (2000). "Le influenze mediobizantine nei mosaici dell'arcone della Passione della Basilica marciana" [The Middle Byzantine influences in the mosaics of the Arch of the Passion of the St Mark's Basilica]. Arte Documento (in Italian). XIV (14): 50–53.
- Smith, D. J. (1983). "5". In Martin Henig (ed.). A Handbook of Roman Art. Phaidon. ISBN 0714822140.
- Oddo, Giuseppe (2014). Decorazione a motivi geometrici vol. I. p. Blurb.
External links
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 883–890. .