Oracle
Part of a series on |
Anthropology of religion |
---|
Social and cultural anthropology |
An oracle is a person or thing considered to provide insight, wise counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. If done through occultic means, it is a form of divination.
Description
The word oracle comes from the Latin verb ōrāre, "to speak" and properly refers to the priest or priestess uttering the prediction. In extended use, oracle may also refer to the site of the oracle, and to the oracular utterances themselves, called khrēsmoí (χρησμοί) in Greek.
Oracles were thought to be portals through which the gods spoke directly to people. In this sense, they were different from seers (manteis, μάντεις) who interpreted signs sent by the gods through bird signs, animal entrails, and other various methods.[1]
The most important oracles of Greek antiquity were
The Sibylline Oracles are a collection of oracular utterances written in Greek hexameters, ascribed to the Sibyls, prophetesses who uttered divine revelations in frenzied states.
Origins
At the oracle of
In classical antiquity
Pythia at Delphi
When the Prytanies' seat shines white in the island of Siphnos,
White-browed all the forum—need then of a true seer's wisdom—
Danger will threat from a wooden boat, and a herald in scarlet.
The Pythia was the mouthpiece of the oracles of the god Apollo, and was also known as the Oracle of Delphi.[7]
The Delphic Oracle exerted considerable influence throughout Hellenic culture. Distinctively, this woman was essentially the highest authority both civilly and religiously in male-dominated
Croesus, king of Lydia beginning in 560 BC, tested the oracles of the world to discover which gave the most accurate prophecies. He sent out emissaries to seven sites who were all to ask the oracles on the same day what the king was doing at that very moment. Croesus proclaimed the oracle at Delphi to be the most accurate, who correctly reported that the king was making a lamb-and-tortoise stew, and so he graced her with a magnitude of precious gifts.[9] He then consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to Herodotus was advised: "If you cross the river, a great empire will be destroyed". Believing the response favourable, Croesus attacked, but it was his own empire that ultimately was destroyed by the Persians.
She allegedly also proclaimed that there was no man wiser than
The oracle's powers were highly sought after and never doubted. Any inconsistencies between prophecies and events were dismissed as failure to correctly interpret the responses, not an error of the oracle.
Sibyl at Cumae
Oracle at Didyma
Didyma near Ionia in Asia Minor in the domain of the famous city of Miletus.
Oracle at Dodona
Oracle at Abae
The oracle of Abae was one of the most important oracles. It was almost completely destroyed by the Persians during the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[13]
Other oracles
Erythrae near Ionia in Asia Minor was home to a prophetess.
Near the Menestheus's port or Menesthei Portus (Greek: Μενεσθέως λιμήν), modern El Puerto de Santa María, Spain, was the Oracle of Menestheus (Greek: Μαντεῖον τοῦ Μενεσθέως), to whom also the inhabitants of Gades offered sacrifices.[15][16]
At the Ikaros island in the Persian Gulf (modern Failaka Island in Kuwait), there was an oracle of Artemis Tauropolus.[17]
At Claros, there was the oracle of Apollo Clarius.[18]
At Ptoion, there was an oracle of Ptoios and later of Apollo.[19]
At Gryneium, there was a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle.[20][21][22]
At Livadeia there was the oracle of Trophonius.[23]
The oracle of
There was also another oracle of Zeus Ammon at Aphytis in Chalkidiki.[24]
The oracle of Zeus at Olympia.[25]
In the city of Anariace (Ἀναριάκη) at the Caspian Sea, there was an oracle for sleepers. Persons should sleep in the temple in order to learn the divine will.[26][27][28]
The oracle of Apollo at Eutresis[29] and the oracle of Apollo at Tegyra.[30]
Oracle of Aphrodite at Paphos.[31]
There were many "oracles of the dead", such as in Argolis, Cumae, Herakleia in Pontos, in the Temple of Poseidon in Taenaron, but the most important was the Necromanteion of Acheron.
In other cultures
The term "oracle" is also applied in modern English to parallel institutions of divination in other cultures. Specifically, it is used in the context of
Celtic polytheism
In
China
In China,
A different divining method, using the stalks of the yarrow plant, was practiced in the subsequent Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). Around the late 9th century BC, the divination system was recorded in the I Ching, or "Book of Changes", a collection of linear signs used as oracles. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China since the Zhou period.
Hawaii
In Hawaii, oracles were found at certain heiau, Hawaiian temples. These oracles were found in towers covered in white kapa cloth made from plant fibres. In here, priests received the will of gods. These towers were called 'Anu'u. An example of this can be found at Ahu'ena heiau in Kona.[33]
India and Nepal
In ancient
Contemporarily, Theyyam or "theiyam" in Malayalam - a south Indian language - the process by which a Priest invites a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer other devotees' questions, still happens.[37] The same is called "arulvaakku" or "arulvaak" in Tamil, another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for arulvakku in Tamil Nadu.[38] The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the same, Buta Kola, "paathri" or "darshin"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by various names such as, "prashnaavali", "vaagdaana", "asei", "aashirvachana" and so on.[39][40][41][42][43] In Nepal it is known as, "Devta ka dhaamee" or "jhaakri".[44]
Nigeria
The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria in Africa have a long tradition of using oracles. In Igbo villages, oracles were usually female priestesses to a particular deity, usually dwelling in a cave or other secluded location away from urban areas, and, much as the oracles of ancient Greece, would deliver prophecies in an ecstatic state to visitors seeking advice. Two of their ancient oracles became especially famous during the pre-colonial period: the Agbala oracle at Awka and the Chukwu oracle at Arochukwu.[45] Although the vast majority of Igbos today are Christian, many of them still use oracles.
Among the related
Norse mythology
In
Pre-Columbian Americas
In the migration myth of the Mexitin, i.e., the early
Tibet
In Tibet, oracles (Chinese: 护法) have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word "oracle" is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis". In the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (Chinese: 欽定藏內善後章程二十九條[46]), an imperial decree published in 1793 by the Qianlong Emperor, article 1 states that the creation of Golden Urn is to ensure prosperity of Gelug, and to eliminate cheating and corruption in the selection process performed by oracles.[47]
The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has, according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar.[48] Nechung and Gadhong are the primary oracles currently consulted; former oracles such as Karmashar and Darpoling are no longer active in exile. The Gadhong oracle has died leaving Nechung to be the only primary oracle. Another oracle the Dalai Lama consults is the Tenma Oracle, for which a young Tibetan woman by the name of Khandro La is the medium for the mountain goddesses Tseringma along with the other 11 goddesses. The Dalai Lama gives a complete description of the process of trance and spirit possession in his book Freedom in Exile.[49] Dorje Shugden oracles were once consulted by the Dalai Lamas until the 14th Dalai Lama banned the practice, even though he consulted Dorje Shugden for advice to escape and was successful in it. Due to the ban, many of the abbots that were worshippers of Dorje Shugden have been forced to go against the Dalai Lama.
See also
- Fuji (planchette writing)
- Futomani
- I Ching
- Jiaobei
- Kau Cim
- Lên đồng
- Lingqijing
- Mudang
- Poe divination
- Tangki
- Tung Shing
References
- ^ Flower, Michael Attyah. The Seer in Ancient Greece. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
- ^ Walter Burkert.Greek Religion. Harvard University Press.1985.p 116-118
- ^ Herodotus, The Histories, ii 55, and vii 134.
- ^ Cristopher L.C. Whitcomp.Minoan Snake goddess.8.Snakes, Egypt, Magic and wome
- ^ Hymn to Pythian Apollo.363,369
- ^ Herodotus, The Histories, as translated in: Rawlinson, George; Rawlinson, Henry Creswicke; Wilkinson, John Gardner (1862). The History of Herodotus: A New English Version. Vol. II. London: John Murray. p. 376. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
- ISBN 1603846476[Retrieved 2015-04-25]
- ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.43
- ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.51-53
- ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.63. Socrates also argued that the oracle's effectiveness was rooted in her ability to abandon herself completely to a higher power by way of insanity or "sacred madness."
- ISBN 9004088466.
- ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.15
- ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Abae
- ^ Pausanias.Guide to Greece 9.39.2–5.
- ^ "LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book III Chapter 1". penelope.uchicago.edu.
- ^ "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), MENESTHEI PORTUS". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
- ^ "Strabo, Geography, §16.3.2".
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.5.1–3
- )
- ^ "Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, G213.10".
- ^ "Philostratus the Athenian, Vita Apollonii, 4.14".
- ^ "Strabo, Geography, 13.3.5".
- ^ Col. William Leake, TRAVELS IN NORTHERN GREECE, 2.121
- ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, A151.1
- ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), Oraculum
- ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Anariacea
- ^ Strabo, Geography, 11.7.1
- ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, A93.5
- ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Eutresis
- ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Tegyra
- ^ C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Divus Titus, 5
- OEDs.v. "oracle n."
- ^ John Fischer. "'Anu'u (oracle tower) and Ki'i Akua (temple images) at 'Ahu'ena Heiau in Kailua-Kona on Hawaii's Big Island". About.com Travel.
- ISBN 90-04-04190-7.
- ^ S. N. Kandasamy (2020). திருக்குறள்: ஆய்வுத் தெளிவுரை (பெருட்பால், பகுதி 1) [Tirukkural: Research commentary: Book of Porul, Part 1]. Chennai: Manivasagar Padhippagam.
- ^ Vedhanayagam, Rama (2017). திருவள்ளுவ மாலை மூலமும் எளிய உரை விளக்கமும் [Tiruvalluvamaalai: Source with simple commentary] (in Tamil) (1 ed.). Chennai: Manimekalai Prasuram.
- ^ "'Devakoothu'; the lone woman Theyyam in North Malabar". Mathrubhumi.
- ISBN 978-1-1375-8909-5)
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^ Brückner, Heidrun (1987). "Bhuta Worship in Coastal Karnataka: An Oral Tulu Myth and Festival Ritual of Jumadi". Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. 13/14: 17–37.
- ^ Brückner, Heidrun (1992). "Dhumavati-Bhuta" An Oral Tulu-Text Collected in the 19th Century. Edition, Translation, and Analysis". Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. 13/14: 13–63.
- ^ Brückner, Heidrun (1995). Fürstliche Fest: Text und Rituale der Tuḷu-Volksreligion an der Westküste Südindiens. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 199–201.
- ^ Brückner, Heidrun (2009a). On an Auspicious Day, at Dawn … Studies in Tulu Culture and Oral Literature. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- ^ Brückner, Heidrun (2009b). "Der Gesang von der Büffelgottheit" in Wenn Masken Tanzen – Rituelles Theater und Bronzekunst aus Südindien edited by Johannes Beltz. Zürich: Rietberg Museum. pp. 57–64.
- ISBN 978-81-7835-325-8.
- ^ Webster J.B. and Boahen A.A., The Revolutionary Years, West Africa since 1800, Longman, London, p. 107–108.
- ^ "欽定藏內善後章程/欽定藏內善後章程二十九條". zh.wikisource.org.
- ^ 皇帝為了黃教的興隆,和不使護法弄假作弊
- ISBN 0-349-11111-1. p.233
- ^ "Nechung - the State Oracle of Tibet". Archived from the original on 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
Further reading
- Broad, William J.(2007). The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets. New York: Penguin Press.
- Broad, William J.(2006). The Oracle: The Lost Secrets and Hidden Message of Ancient Delphi. New York: Penguin Press.
- Curnow, T. (1995). The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Duckworth – ISBN 0-7156-3194-2
- Evans-Pritchard, E. (1976). Witchcraft, Oracle, and Magic among the Azande. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Fontenrose, J. (1981). The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations, with a Catalogue of Responses. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Kajava, Mika (ed.) (2013). Studies in Ancient Oracles and Divination (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 40). Rome: Institutum Romanum Finlandiae.
- Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self-Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13748-6.
- Stoneman, Richard (2011). The Ancient Oracles: Making the Gods Speak. Yale University Press.
- Garoi Ashram, (2004–2023). The Copper Oracle of Sri Achyuta: Answers as Instantaneous Inscription.
- Woodard, Roger D. (2023). Divination and prophecy in the ancient Greek world. Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 9781009221610.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
External links
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.