Orange (fruit)
The orange, also called sweet orange to distinguish it from the bitter orange (Citrus × aurantium), is the fruit of a tree in the family Rutaceae. Botanically, this is the hybrid Citrus × sinensis, between the pomelo (Citrus maxima) and the mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. There are many related hybrids including of mandarins and sweet orange. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.
The orange originated in a region encompassing
Oranges, variously understood, have featured in human culture since ancient times. They first appear in Western art in the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck, but they had been depicted in Chinese art centuries earlier, as in Zhao Lingrang's Song dynasty fan painting Yellow Oranges and Green Tangerines. By the 17th century, an orangery had become an item of prestige in Europe, as seen at the Versailles Orangerie. More recently, artists such as Vincent van Gogh, John Sloan, and Henri Matisse included oranges in their paintings.
Description
The orange tree is a relatively small
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Flowers
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Fruit starting to develop
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Flowers and fruit simultaneously
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Mature tree inGalicia, Spain, fruiting in November
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Structure of the botanical hesperidium
History
Hybrid origins
The sweet orange, The fruit was created as a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component.[13][14] Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a pomelo BC1 backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange.[15][16] Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange are approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin.[17] All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this prototype cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation.[16] Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents.[16]
Sweet oranges have in turn given rise to many further hybrids including the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines have produced the clementine and murcott. The ambersweet is a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid.[17][18] The citranges are a group of sweet orange x trifoliate orange (Citrus trifoliata) hybrids.[19]
Arab Agricultural Revolution
In Europe, the
Spread across Europe
Shortly afterward, the sweet orange quickly was adopted as an edible fruit. It was considered a luxury food grown by wealthy people in private conservatories, called
To the Americas
Spanish travelers introduced the sweet orange to the American continent. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus may have planted the fruit on Hispaniola.[6] Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s brought sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St Augustine. Spanish missionaries brought orange trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in San Diego, California, in 1769.[11] Archibald Menzies, the botanist on the Vancouver Expedition, collected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard, and gave them to several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. The sweet orange came to be grown across the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s.[11][24] Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks.[11]
Etymology
The word "orange" derives ultimately from
The word entered
Composition
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 197 kJ (47 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
11.75 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 9.35 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 2.4 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.12 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.94 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 86.75 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[31] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[32] |
Orange flesh is 87% water, 12%
Phytochemicals
Oranges contain diverse
Taste
The taste of oranges is determined mainly by the ratio of sugars to acids, whereas orange aroma derives from volatile organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, and esters.[36][37] Bitter limonoid compounds, such as limonin, decrease gradually during development, whereas volatile aroma compounds tend to peak in mid- to late-season development.[38] Taste quality tends to improve later in harvests when there is a higher sugar/acid ratio with less bitterness.[38] As a citrus fruit, the orange is acidic, with pH levels ranging from 2.9[39] to 4.0.[39][40] Taste and aroma vary according to genetic background, environmental conditions during development, ripeness at harvest, postharvest conditions, and storage duration.[36][37]
Cultivars
Common
Common oranges (also called "white", "round", or "blond" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice.[4][6]
Valencia
The Valencia orange is a late-season fruit; it is popular when navel oranges are out of season. Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H. Hart of Federal Point, Florida.[41]
Navel
Navel oranges have a characteristic second fruit at the
The
Blood
Blood oranges, with an intense red coloration inside, are widely grown around the Mediterranean; there are several cultivars.[11] The development of the red color requires cool nights.[46] The redness is mainly due to the anthocyanin pigment chrysanthemin (cyanidin 3-O-glucoside).[47]
Acidless
Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They also are called "sweet" oranges in the United States, with similar names in other countries: douce in France, sucrena in Spain, dolce or maltese in Italy, meski in North Africa and the Near East (where they are especially popular), succari in Egypt, and lima in Brazil.[4] The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States.[4]
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A grove of Valencia oranges in Florida
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Cara cara navel orange
Cultivation
Climate
Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperatures—between 15.5 and 29 °C (59.9 and 84.2 °F)—and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. They are principally grown in tropical and subtropical regions.[6]
As oranges are sensitive to frost, farmers have developed methods to protect the trees from frost damage. A common process is to spray the trees with water so as to cover them with a thin layer of ice, insulating them even if air temperatures drop far lower. This practice, however, offers protection only for a very short time.[48] Another procedure involves burning fuel oil in smudge pots put between the trees. These burn with a great deal of particulate emission, so condensation of water vapor on the particulate soot prevents condensation on plants and raises the air temperature very slightly. Smudge pots were developed after a disastrous freeze in southern California in January 1913 destroyed a whole crop.[49]
Propagation
Commercially grown orange trees are
Harvest
Canopy-shaking mechanical harvesters are being used increasingly in Florida to harvest oranges. Current canopy shaker machines use a series of six-to-seven-foot-long tines to shake the tree canopy at a relatively constant stroke and frequency.[53] Oranges are picked once they are pale orange.[54]
Degreening
Oranges must be mature when harvested. In the United States, laws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption in Texas, Arizona, California and Florida.[55] Ripe oranges, however, often have some green or yellow-green color in the skin. Ethylene gas is used to turn green skin to orange. This process is known as "degreening", "gassing", "sweating", or "curing".[55] Oranges are non-climacteric fruits and cannot ripen internally in response to ethylene gas after harvesting, though they will de-green externally.[56]
Storage
Commercially, oranges can be stored by refrigeration in controlled-atmosphere chambers for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Storage life ultimately depends on cultivar, maturity, pre-harvest conditions, and handling.[57] At home, oranges have a shelf life of about one month, and are best stored loose.[58]
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Spraying oranges in an orchard in Australia
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Orange grove in California
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Picking oranges, Israel
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Harvest, Israel
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Market stall, Morocco
Pests and diseases
Pests
The first major pest that attacked orange trees in the United States was the cottony cushion scale (
Diseases
Greasy spot, a
Production
Production of oranges – 2022 | |
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Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
Brazil | 16.9 |
India | 10.2 |
China | 7.6 |
Mexico | 4.8 |
Egypt | 3.4 |
United States | 3.1 |
World | 76.4 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[65]
|
In 2022, world production of oranges was 76 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 22% of the total, followed by India, China, and Mexico.[65] The United States Department of Agriculture has established grades for Florida oranges, primarily for oranges sold as fresh fruit.[66] In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas.[67] The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida produces high quality juice, which is often sold fresh and blended with juice from other regions, because Indian River trees yield sweet oranges but in relatively small quantities.[68]
Culinary use
Dessert fruit and juice
Oranges, whose flavor may vary from
Marmalade
Oranges are made into
Extracts
Sweet
In human culture
Oranges have featured in human culture since ancient times. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 BC.[13] Larissa Pham, in The Paris Review, notes that sweet oranges were available in China much earlier than in the West. She writes that Zhao Lingrang's fan painting Yellow Oranges and Green Tangerines pays attention not to the fruit's colour but the shape of the fruit-laden trees, and that Su Shi's poem on the same subject runs "You must remember, / the best scenery of the year, / Is exactly now, / when oranges turn yellow and tangerines green."[78]
The scholar Cristina Mazzoni has examined the multiple uses of the fruit in Italian art and literature, from Catherine of Siena's sending of candied oranges to Pope Urban, to Sandro Botticelli's setting of his painting Primavera in an orange grove. She notes that oranges symbolised desire and wealth on the one hand, and deformity on the other, while in the fairy-stories of Sicily, they have magical properties.[79] Pham comments that the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck contains in a small detail one of the first representations of oranges in Western art, the costly fruit perhaps traded by the merchant Arnolfini himself.[78] By the 17th century, orangeries were added to great houses in Europe, both to enable the fruit to be grown locally and for prestige, as seen in the Versailles Orangerie completed in 1686.[80]
The Dutch
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Yellow Oranges and Green Tangerines by Zhao Lingrang, Chinese fan painting from the Song dynasty, c. 1070–1100
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Detail of the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck, 1434
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Detail of Primavera by Sandro Botticelli, 1482, set in an orange grove
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Still life with oranges on a plate. Possibly Jacques Linard or Louise Moillon, 1640
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The Versailles Orangerie, 1686
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Jean-Baptiste Oudry, The Orange Tree, 1740
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Still Life of Oranges and Lemons with Blue Gloves by Vincent van Gogh, 1889
See also
- Banana – another fruit exported and consumed in large quantities
- List of citrus fruits
- List of culinary fruits
References
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External links
- Media related to Citrus sinensis at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Citrus sinensis at Wikispecies
- Citrus sinensis List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases), USDA, Agricultural Research Service.
- Oranges: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy. (2006). University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. Accessed May 23, 2014.