Oregon Trail
The Oregon Trail | |
---|---|
Location | Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Oregon |
Established | 1830s by mountain men of fur trade, widely publicized by 1843 |
Governing body | National Park Service |
Website | Oregon National Historic Trail |
The Oregon Trail was a 2,170-mile (3,490 km)[1] east–west, large-wheeled wagon route and emigrant trail in the United States that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon Territory. The eastern part of the Oregon Trail spanned part of what is now the state of Kansas and nearly all of what are now the states of Nebraska and Wyoming. The western half of the trail spanned most of the current states of Idaho and Oregon.
The Oregon Trail was laid by
From the early to mid-1830s (and particularly through the years 1846–1869) the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by about 400,000 settlers, farmers, miners, ranchers, and business owners and their families to get to the area known as Oregon and its surrounding counterparts. The eastern half of the trail was also used by travelers on the California Trail (from 1843), Mormon Trail (from 1847), and Bozeman Trail (from 1863) before turning off to their separate destinations. Use of the trail declined after the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, making the trip west substantially faster, cheaper, and safer. Since the mid-1900s, modern highways, such as Interstate 80 and Interstate 84, follow parts of the same course westward and pass through towns originally established to serve those using the Oregon Trail.
History
Lewis and Clark Expedition
In 1803, President
The first land route across the present-day contiguous United States was mapped by the Lewis and Clark Expedition between 1804 and 1806. Lewis and Clark initially believed they had found a practical overland route to the west coast; however, the two passes they found going through the
Pacific Fur Company
Founded by
Under Hunt, fearing attack by the
Pacific Fur Company partner Robert Stuart led a small group of men back east to report to Astor. The group planned to retrace the path followed by the overland expedition back up to the east following the Columbia and Snake Rivers. Fear of a Native American attack near Union Pass in Wyoming forced the group further south where they discovered South Pass, a wide and easy pass over the Continental Divide. The party continued east via the Sweetwater River, North Platte River (where they spent the winter of 1812–13), and Platte River to the Missouri River, finally arriving in St. Louis in the spring of 1813. The route they had used appeared to potentially be a practical wagon route, requiring minimal improvements, and Stuart's journals provided a meticulous account of most of the route.[7] Because of the War of 1812 and the lack of U.S. fur trading posts in the Pacific Northwest, most of the route was unused for more than 10 years.
North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company
In August 1811, three months after Fort Astoria was established, David Thompson and his team of North West Company explorers came floating down the Columbia to Fort Astoria. He had just completed a journey through much of western Canada and most of the Columbia River drainage system. He was mapping the country for possible fur trading posts. Along the way, he camped at the confluence of the Columbia and Snake Rivers and posted a notice claiming the land for Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort on the site. When the War of 1812 broke out, the managers at Fort Astoria were concerned the British navy would seize their forts and supplies, and in 1813 they sold out to the North West Company.
By 1821, intense competition between the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and the North West Company reached the point of armed hostilities, and the British government pressured the two companies to merge. The newly reconfigured HBC had nearly a monopoly on trading (and most governing issues) in the Columbia District, or Oregon Country as it was referred to by the Americans, and also in Rupert's Land. That year the British parliament passed a statute applying the laws of Upper Canada to the district and giving the HBC power to enforce those laws.
From 1813 to the early 1840s the British, through the NWC and HBC, had nearly complete control of the Pacific Northwest and the western half of the Oregon Trail. In theory, the
By overland travel, American missionaries and early settlers (initially mostly ex-trappers) started showing up in Oregon in the late 1820s.[citation needed] Although officially the HBC discouraged settlement because it interfered with its lucrative fur trade, its manager at Fort Vancouver, John McLoughlin, gave substantial help, including employment, until they could get established. In the early 1840s thousands of American settlers arrived and soon greatly outnumbered the British settlers in Oregon.[8] McLoughlin, despite working for the HBC, gave help in the form of loans, medical care, shelter, clothing, food, supplies and seed to U.S. emigrants. These new emigrants often arrived in Oregon tired, worn out, nearly penniless, with insufficient food or supplies, just as winter was coming on. McLoughlin would later be hailed as the Father of Oregon.
The York Factory Express, establishing another route to the Oregon territory, evolved from an earlier express brigade used by the North West Company between Fort Astoria and Fort William, Ontario on Lake Superior. By 1825 the HBC started using two brigades, each setting out from opposite ends of the express route—one from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River and the other from York Factory on Hudson Bay—in spring and passing each other in the middle of the continent. This established a "quick"— about 100 days for 2,600 miles (4,200 km) one way— to transport personnel and transmit messages between Fort Vancouver and York Factory on Hudson Bay.
The HBC built a new much larger Fort Vancouver in 1825 about 90 miles upstream from Fort Astoria, on the north side of the Columbia River (they were hoping the Columbia would be the future Canada–U.S. border). The fort quickly became the center of activity in the Pacific Northwest. Every year ships would come from London to the Pacific (via
When American emigration over the Oregon Trail began in earnest in the early 1840s, for many settlers the fort became the last stop on the Oregon Trail where they could get supplies, aid, and help before starting their homesteads.[8] Fort Vancouver was the main re-supply point for nearly all Oregon trail travelers until U.S. towns could be established. The HBC established Fort Colvile in 1825 on the Columbia River near Kettle Falls as a good site to collect furs and control the upper Columbia River fur trade.[9] Fort Nisqually was built near the present town of DuPont, Washington and was the first HBC fort on Puget Sound. Fort Victoria was erected in 1843 and became the headquarters of operations in British Columbia, eventually growing into modern-day Victoria, the capital city of British Columbia.
By 1840, the HBC had three forts:
When the fur trade slowed in the 1840s because of fashion changes in men's hats, the value of the Pacific Northwest to the British was seriously diminished. Canada had few potential settlers who were willing to move more than 2,500 miles (4,000 km) to the Pacific Northwest, although several hundred ex-trappers, British and American, and their families did start settling in what became Oregon and Washington. In 1841,
In 1846, the Oregon Treaty ending the Oregon boundary dispute was signed with Britain. The British lost much of the land they had so long controlled. The new Canada–United States border was established at the 49th parallel to the Pacific Coast, then dipping south around Vancouver Island. The treaty granted the HBC navigation rights on the Columbia River for supplying their fur posts, clear titles to their trading post properties allowing them to be sold later if they wanted, and left the British with a good anchorage at Victoria. It gave the United States most of what it wanted, a "reasonable" boundary and a good anchorage on the West Coast in Puget Sound. While there were few United States settlers in the future state of Washington in 1846, the United States had already demonstrated it could induce thousands of settlers to go to the Oregon Territory, and it would be only a short time before they would vastly outnumber the few hundred HBC employees and retirees living in the region.
Great American Desert
Reports from expeditions in 1806 by Lieutenant
Fur traders, trappers, and explorers
Fur trappers, often working for fur traders, followed nearly all possible streams looking for beaver in the years (1812–40) when the fur trade was active.
In the fall of 1823, Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick led their trapping crew south from the
Up to 3,000 mountain men were
Fur traders tried to use the Platte River, the main route of the eastern Oregon Trail, for transport but soon gave up in frustration as its many channels and islands combined with its muddy waters were too shallow, crooked, and unpredictable to use for water transport. The Platte proved to be unnavigable. The Platte River and North Platte River Valley, however, became an easy roadway for wagons, with its nearly flat plain sloping easily up and heading almost due west.
Several U.S. government-sponsored explorers explored part of the Oregon Trail and wrote extensively about their explorations. Captain
Missionaries
In 1834, The Dalles
Early emigrants
On May 1, 1839, a group of eighteen men from
In September 1840,
In 1841, the
On May 16, 1842, the second organized wagon train set out from Elm Grove, Missouri, with more than 100 pioneers.[20] The party was led by Elijah White. The group broke up after passing Fort Hall with most of the single men hurrying ahead and the families following later.
Great Migration of 1843
In what was dubbed "The Great Migration of 1843" or the "Wagon Train of 1843", an estimated 700 to 1,000 emigrants left for Oregon.
In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood, providing a rough but completely passable wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Willamette Valley: about 2,000 miles (3,200 km).
Oregon Country
In 1843, settlers of the Willamette Valley drafted the
Women on the Overland Trail
Consensus interpretations, as found in John Faragher's book, Women and Men on the Overland Trail (1979), held that men's and women's power within marriage was uneven.[25] This meant that women did not experience the trail as liberating, but instead only found harder work than they had handled back east, all the while upholding the virtues of the Culture of Domesticity. However, feminist scholarship, by historians such as Lillian Schlissel,[26] Sandra Myres,[27] and Glenda Riley,[28] suggests men and women did not view the West and western migration in the same way. Whereas men might deem the dangers of the trial acceptable if there was a strong economic reward at the end, women viewed those dangers as threatening to the stability and survival of the family. Once they arrived at their new Western home, women's public role in building Western communities and participating in the Western economy gave them a greater authority than they had known back East. There was a "female frontier" that was distinct and different from that experienced by men.[29]
Women's diaries kept during their travels or the letters they wrote home once they arrived at their destination support these contentions. Women wrote with sadness and concern about the numerous deaths along the trail. Anna Maria King wrote to her family in 1845 about her trip to the Luckiamute Valley Oregon and of the multiple deaths experienced by her traveling group:
But listen to the deaths: Sally Chambers, John King, and his wife, their little daughter Electa and their babe, a son 9 months old, and Dulancy C. Norton's sister are gone. Mr. A. Fuller lost his wife and daughter Tabitha. Eight of our two families have gone to their long home.[30]
Similarly, emigrant Martha Gay Masterson, who traveled the trail with her family at the age of 13, mentioned the fascination she and other children felt for the graves and loose skulls they would find near their camps.[31]
Anna Maria King, like many other women, also advised family and friends back home of the realities of the trip and offered advice on how to prepare for the trip. Women also reacted and responded, often enthusiastically, to the landscape of the West. Betsey Bayley, in a letter to her sister, Lucy P. Griffith, described how travelers responded to the new environment they encountered:
The mountains looked like volcanoes and the appearance that one day there had been an awful thundering of volcanoes and a burning world. The valleys were all covered with a white crust and looked like
salaratus. Some of the companies used it to raise their bread.[32]
Mormon emigration
Following persecution and mob action in
Between 1847 and 1860, over 43,000 Mormon settlers and tens of thousands of travelers on the California Trail and Oregon Trail followed Young to Utah. After 1848, the travelers headed to California or Oregon resupplied at the Salt Lake Valley, and then went back over the Salt Lake Cutoff, rejoining the trail near the future Idaho– Utah border at the City of Rocks in Idaho.
Along the Mormon Trail, the Mormon pioneers established several ferries and made trail improvements to help later travelers and earn much-needed money. One of the better-known ferries was the Mormon Ferry across the North Platte near the future site of Fort Caspar in Wyoming which operated between 1848 and 1852 and the Green River ferry near Fort Bridger which operated from 1847 to 1856. The ferries were free for Mormon settlers while all others were charged a toll ranging from $3 to $8.
California Gold Rush
In January 1848, James Marshall found gold in the Sierra Nevada portion of the
Later emigration and uses of the trail
The trail was still in use during the
Over the years many ferries were established to help get across the many rivers on the path of the Oregon Trail. Multiple ferries were established on the Missouri River,
In April 1859, an expedition of
The Army improved the trail for use by wagons and stagecoaches in 1859 and 1860. Starting in 1860, the American Civil War closed the heavily subsidized Butterfield Overland Mail stage Southern Route through the deserts of the American Southwest.
In 1860–1861, the Pony Express, employing riders traveling on horseback day and night with relay stations about every 10 miles (16 km) to supply fresh horses, was established from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California. The Pony Express built many of their eastern stations along the Oregon/California/Mormon/Bozeman Trails and many of their western stations along the very sparsely settled Central Overland Route across Utah and Nevada.[41] The Pony Express delivered mail summer and winter in roughly 10 days from the midwest to California.
In 1861,
After the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, telegraph lines usually followed the railroad tracks as the required relay stations and telegraph lines were much easier to maintain alongside the tracks. Telegraph lines to unpopulated areas were largely abandoned.
As the years passed, the Oregon Trail became a heavily used corridor from the Missouri River to the Columbia River. Offshoots of the trail continued to grow as gold and silver discoveries, farming, lumbering, ranching, and business opportunities resulted in much more traffic to many areas. Traffic became two-directional as towns were established along the trail. By 1870, the population in the states served by the Oregon Trail and its offshoots increased by about 350,000 over their 1860 census levels. Except for most of the 180,000 population increase in California, most of these people living away from the coast traveled over parts of the Oregon Trail and its many extensions and cutoffs to get to their new residences.
Even before the famous Texas cattle drives after the Civil War, the trail was being used to drive herds of thousands of cattle, horses, sheep, and goats from the Midwest to various towns and cities along the trails. According to studies by trail historian John Unruh the livestock may have been as plentiful or more plentiful than the immigrants in many years.[42] In 1852, there were even records of a 1,500-turkey drive from Illinois to California.[43] The main reason for this livestock traffic was the large cost discrepancy between livestock in the Midwest and at the end of the trail in California, Oregon, or Montana. They could often be bought in the Midwest for about a third to tenth of what they would fetch at the end of the trail. Large losses could occur and the drovers would still make significant profit. As the emigrant travel on the trail declined in later years and after livestock ranches were established at many places along the trail large herds of animals often were driven along part of the trail to get to and from markets.
Trail decline
The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, providing faster, safer, and usually cheaper travel east and west (the journey took seven days and cost as little as $65, or equivalent to $1,429 in 2022).
Routes
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As the trail developed it became marked by many cutoffs and shortcuts from Missouri to Oregon. The basic route follows river valleys as grass and water were necessary.
While the first few parties organized and departed from Elm Grove, the Oregon Trail's primary starting point was
The Oregon Trail's nominal termination point was Oregon City, at the time the proposed capital of the Oregon Territory. However, many settlers branched off or stopped short of this goal and settled at convenient or promising locations along the trail. Commerce with pioneers going further west helped establish these early settlements and launched local economies critical to their prosperity.
At dangerous or difficult river crossings, ferries or toll bridges were set up and bad places on the trail were either repaired or bypassed. Several toll roads were constructed. Gradually the trail became easier with the average trip (as recorded in numerous diaries) dropping from about 160 days in 1849 to 140 days 10 years later.[citation needed]
Many other trails followed the Oregon Trail for much of its length, including the Mormon Trail from Illinois to Utah; the California Trail to the gold fields of California; and the Bozeman Trail to Montana. Because it was more a network of trails than a single trail, there were numerous variations with other trails eventually established on both sides of the Platte, North Platte, Snake, and Columbia rivers. With literally thousands of people and thousands of livestock traveling in a fairly small time slot, the travelers had to spread out to find clean water, wood, good campsites, and grass. The dust kicked up by the many travelers was a constant complaint, and where the terrain would allow it there may have been between 20 and 50 wagons traveling abreast.
Remnants of the trail in Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, and Oregon have been listed on the
Missouri
Initially, the main jumping-off point was the common head of the Santa Fe Trail and Oregon trail— Independence, and Kansas City. Travelers starting in Independence had to ferry across the Missouri River. After following the Santa Fe trail to near present-day Topeka, they ferried across the Kansas River to start the trek across Kansas and points west. Another busy "jumping off point" was St. Joseph—established in 1843.[46] In its early days, St. Joseph was a bustling outpost and rough frontier town, serving as one of the last supply points before heading over the Missouri River to the frontier. St. Joseph had good steamboat connections to St. Louis and other ports on the combined Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi River systems. During the busy season, there were several ferry boats and steamboats available to transport travelers to the Kansas shore where they started their travels westward. Before the Union Pacific Railroad was started in 1865, St. Joseph was the westernmost point in the United States accessible by rail. Other towns used as supply points in Missouri included Old Franklin, Arrow Rock, and Fort Osage.[47]
Iowa
The Lewis and Clark Expedition stopped several times in the future state of Iowa on their 1805–1806 expedition to the west coast. Some settlers started drifting into Iowa in 1833. In 1846, the Mormons, expelled from Nauvoo, Illinois, traversed Iowa (on part of the Mormon Trail) and settled temporarily in significant numbers on the Missouri River in Iowa and the future state of Nebraska at their Winter Quarters near the future city of Omaha, Nebraska.[48] The Mormons established about 50 temporary towns including the town of Kanesville, Iowa (renamed Council Bluffs in 1852), on the east bank of the Missouri River opposite the mouth of the Platte River. For travelers bringing their teams tolatte Riven, Kanesville, and other towns became major jumping-off places and supply points. In 1847 the Mormons established three ferries across the Missouri River and others established even more ferries for the spring start on the trail. In the 1850 census, there were about 8,000 mostly Mormons tabulated in the large Pottawattamie County, Iowa District 21. (The original Pottawattamie County was subsequently made into five counties and parts of several more.) By 1854, most of the Mormon towns, farms, and villages were largely taken over by non-Mormons as they abandoned them or sold them for not much and continued their migration to Utah. After 1846, the towns of Council Bluffs, Iowa, Omaha (est. 1852), and other Missouri River towns became major supply points and jumping-off places for travelers on the Mormon, California, Oregon, and other trails west.
Kansas
Starting initially in Independence, Missouri, or Kansas City in Missouri, the initial trail follows the Santa Fe Trail into Kansas south of the Wakarusa River. After crossing Mount Oread at Lawrence, the trail crosses the Kansas River by ferry or boats near Topeka and crosses the Wakarusa and Black Vermillion rivers by ferries. West of Topeka, the route paralleled what is now U.S. Route 24 until west of St. Mary's. After the Black Vermillion River, the trail angles northwest to Nebraska paralleling the Little Blue River until reaching the south side of the Platte River. Destinations along the Oregon Trail in Kansas included St. Mary's Mission, Pottawatomie Indian Pay Station, Vieux's Vermilion Crossing, Alcove Springs and the Hollenberg Station which was built for and used concurrently in 1860 and 1861 by the Pony Express. Travel by wagon over the gently rolling Kansas countryside was usually unimpeded except where streams had cut steep banks. There a passage could be made with a lot of shovel work to cut down the banks or the travelers could find an already established crossing.[citation needed]
Nebraska
Those emigrants on the eastern side of the Missouri River in Missouri or Iowa used ferries and steamboats (fitted out for ferry duty) to cross into towns in Nebraska. Several towns in Nebraska were used as jumping-off places with Omaha eventually becoming a favorite after about 1855. Fort Kearny (est. 1848) is about 200 miles (320 km) from the Missouri River, and the trail and its many offshoots nearly all converged close to Fort Kearny as they followed the Platte River west. The army-maintained Fort was the first chance on the trail to buy emergency supplies, do repairs, get medical aid, or mail a letter. Those on the north side of the Platte could usually wade the shallow river if they needed to visit the fort.
The Platte River and the North Platte River in the future states of Nebraska and Wyoming typically had many channels and islands and were too shallow, crooked, muddy, and unpredictable for travel even by canoe. The Platte as it pursued its braided paths to the Missouri River was "too thin to plow and too thick to drink". While unusable for transportation, the Platte River and North Platte River valleys provided an easily passable wagon corridor going almost due west with access to water, grass, buffalo, and buffalo chips for fuel.[49] The trails gradually got rougher as it progressed up the North Platte. There were trails on both sides of the muddy rivers. The Platte was about 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and 2 to 60 inches (5.1 to 152.4 cm) deep. The water was silty and bad tasting but it could be used if no other water was available. Letting it sit in a bucket for an hour or so or stirring in a 1/4 cup of cornmeal allowed most of the silt to settle out.
In the spring in Nebraska and Wyoming travelers often encountered fierce wind, rain, and lightning storms. Until about 1870 travelers encountered hundreds of thousands of
Notable landmarks in Nebraska include
Today much of the Oregon Trail follows roughly along Interstate 80 from Wyoming to
Cholera on the Platte River
Because of the Platte's brackish water, the preferred camping spots were along one of the many freshwater streams draining into the Platte or the occasional freshwater spring found along the way. These preferred camping spots became sources of cholera in the epidemic years (1849–1855) as many thousands of people used the same camping spots with essentially no sewage facilities or adequate sewage treatment. One of the side effects of cholera is acute diarrhea, which helps contaminate even more water unless it is isolated and/or treated. The cause of cholera (ingesting the Vibrio cholerae bacterium from contaminated water) and the best treatment for cholera infections were unknown in this era. Thousands of travelers on the combined California, Oregon, and Mormon trails succumbed to cholera between 1849 and 1855. Most were buried in unmarked graves in Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming. Although also considered part of the Mormon Trail, the grave of Rebecca Winters is one of the few marked ones left. There are many cases cited involving people who were alive and healthy in the morning and dead by nightfall.
Fort Laramie was the end of most cholera outbreaks which killed thousands along the lower Platte and North Platte from 1849 to 1855. Spread by cholera bacteria in fecal-contaminated water, cholera causes massive diarrhea, leading to dehydration and death. In those days its cause and treatment were unknown, and it was often fatal—up to 30 percent of infected people died. It is believed that the swifter flowing rivers in Wyoming helped prevent the germs from spreading.[53]
Colorado
A branch of the Oregon trail crossed the very northeast corner of Colorado if they followed the South Platte River to one of its last crossings. This branch of the trail passed through present-day Julesburg before entering Wyoming. Later settlers followed the Platte and South Platte Rivers into their settlements there (much of which became the state of Colorado).
Wyoming
After crossing the South Platte River the Oregon Trail follows the North Platte River out of Nebraska into Wyoming. Fort Laramie, at the confluence of the Laramie and North Platte rivers, was a major stopping point. Fort Laramie was a former fur trading outpost originally named Fort John that was purchased in 1848 by the U.S. Army to protect travelers on the trails.[54] It was the last army outpost till travelers reached the coast.
After crossing the South Platte the trail continues up the North Platte River, crossing many small swift-flowing creeks. As the North Platte veers to the south, the trail crosses the North Platte to the Sweetwater River Valley, which heads almost due west.
Over time, two major heavily used cutoffs were established in Wyoming. The Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff was established in 1844 and cut about 70 miles (110 km) off the main route. It leaves the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of South Pass and heads almost due west crossing Big Sandy Creek and then about 45 miles (72 km) of waterless, very dusty desert before reaching the Green River near the present town of La Barge. Ferries here transferred them across the Green River. From there the Sublette–Greenwood Cutoff trail had to cross a mountain range to connect with the main trail near Cokeville in the Bear River Valley.[57]
The Lander Road, formally the Fort Kearney, South Pass, and Honey Lake Wagon Road, was established and built by U.S. government contractors in 1858–59.[58] It was about 80 miles (130 km) shorter than the main trail through Fort Bridger with good grass, water, firewood, and fishing but it was a much steeper and rougher route, crossing three mountain ranges. In 1859, 13,000[59] of the 19,000[60] Emigrants traveling to California and Oregon used the Lander Road. The traffic in later years is undocumented.
The Lander Road departs the main trail at Burnt Ranch near South Pass, crosses the Continental Divide north of South Pass, and reaches the Green River near the present town of Big Piney, Wyoming. From there the trail followed Big Piney Creek west before passing over the 8,800 feet (2,700 m) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range. It then crosses over the Smith Fork of the Bear River before ascending and crossing another 8,200-foot (2,500 m) pass on the Salt River Range of mountains and then descending into Star Valley. It exited the mountains near the present Smith Fork road about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the town of Smoot. The road continued almost due north along the present-day Wyoming; Idaho western border through Star Valley. To avoid crossing the Salt River (which drains into the Snake River) which runs down Star Valley the Lander Road crossed the river when it was small and stayed west of the Salt River. After traveling down the Salt River Valley (Star Valley) about 20 miles (32 km) north the road turned almost due west near the present town of Auburn, and entered into the present state of Idaho along Stump Creek. In Idaho, it followed the Stump Creek valley northwest until it crossed the Caribou Mountains and proceeded past the south end of Grays Lake. The trail then proceeded almost due west to meet the main trail at Fort Hall; alternatively, a branch trail headed almost due south to meet the main trail near the present town of Soda Springs.[61][62]
Numerous landmarks are along the trail in Wyoming including Independence Rock,
Utah
In 1847, Brigham Young and the Mormon pioneers departed from the Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger in Wyoming and followed (and much improved) the rough trail originally recommended by Lansford Hastings to the Donner Party in 1846 through the Wasatch Mountains into Utah.[63] After getting into Utah, they immediately started setting up irrigated farms and cities—including Salt Lake City. In 1848, the Salt Lake Cutoff was established by Sam Hensley,[64] and returning members of the Mormon Battalion providing a path north of the Great Salt Lake from Salt Lake City back to the California and Oregon trails. This cutoff rejoined the Oregon and California Trails near the City of Rocks near the Utah; Idaho border and could be used by both California and Oregon-bound travelers. Located about halfway on both the California and Oregon trails many thousands of later travelers used Salt Lake City and other Utah cities as an intermediate stop for selling or trading excess goods or tired livestock for fresh livestock, repairs, supplies, or fresh vegetables. The Mormons looked on these travelers as a welcome bonanza as setting up new communities from scratch required nearly everything the travelers could afford to part with. The overall distance to California or Oregon was very close to the same whether one "detoured" to Salt Lake City or not. For their use and to encourage California and Oregon-bound travelers the Mormons improved the Mormon Trail from Fort Bridger and the Salt Lake Cutoff trail. To raise much-needed money and facilitate travel on the Salt Lake Cutoff they set up several ferries across the Weber, Bear, and Malad rivers, which were used mostly by travelers bound for Oregon or California.
Idaho
The main Oregon and California Trail went north from Fort Bridger to the Little Muddy Creek where it passed over the Bear River Mountains to the Bear River Valley, which it followed northwest into the Thomas Fork area, where the trail crossed over the present day Wyoming line into Idaho. In the Eastern Sheep Creek Hills in the Thomas Fork Valley, the emigrants encountered Big Hill, a detour caused by a then-impassable cut the Bear River made through the mountains, with a tough ascent often requiring doubling up of teams and a steep and dangerous descent.[65] In 1852, Eliza Ann McAuley found the McAuley Cutoff, which bypassed much of the difficult climb and descent of Big Hill. About 5 miles (8.0 km) on they passed present-day Montpelier, Idaho, which is now the site of the National Oregon-California Trail Center.[66] The trail follows the Bear River northwest to present-day Soda Springs, which attracted pioneers with hot carbonated water for laundry and chugging springs for fresh water.[67] Just west of Soda Springs the Bear River turns southwest as it heads for the Great Salt Lake, and the main trail turns northwest to follow the Portneuf River valley to Fort Hall, Idaho. Fort Hall was a fur trading post located on the Snake River, established in 1832 by Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth and company and later sold in 1837 to the Hudson's Bay Company. At Fort Hall, travelers were given available aid and supplies as needed. Mosquitoes were constant pests, and travelers often mentioned that their animals were covered with blood from the bites. The route from Fort Bridger to Fort Hall is about 210 miles (340 km), taking nine to twelve days.
At Soda Springs was one branch of Lander Road (established and built with government contractors in 1858), which had gone west from near South Pass, over the Salt River Mountains and down Star Valley before turning west near present-day Auburn, Wyoming, and entering Idaho. From there it proceeded northwest into Idaho up Stump Creek canyon for about 10 miles (16 km). One branch turned almost 90 degrees and proceeded southwest to Soda Springs. Another branch headed almost due west past Gray's Lake to rejoin the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of Fort Hall.
On the main trail about 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Soda Springs Hudspeth's Cutoff (established in 1849 and used mostly by California trail users) took off from the main trail heading west, bypassing Fort Hall. It rejoined the California Trail at Cassia Creek near the City of Rocks.[68] Hudspeth's Cutoff had five mountain ranges to cross and took about the same amount of time as the main route to Fort Hall, but many took it thinking it was shorter. Its main advantage was that it helped spread out the traffic during peak periods, increasing grass availability.[69]
West of Fort Hall, the main trail traveled about 40 miles (64 km) on the south side of the Snake River southwest past American Falls,
The Snake River's depth and fast water meant that there were few places to safely cross. Two of these fords were near Fort Hall, where travelers on the Oregon Trail North Side Alternate (established about 1852) and Goodale's Cutoff (established 1862) crossed the Snake to travel on the north side. Nathaniel Wyeth wrote in his diary that his party found a ford across the Snake River 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of where he founded Fort Hall. Another possible crossing was a few miles upstream of
From the present site of Pocatello, the trail proceeded west on the south side of the Snake River for about 180 miles (290 km). This route passed
The trail continued west to Three Island Crossing (near present-day Glenns Ferry[75][76]). Here most emigrants used the divisions of the river caused by three islands to cross the difficult and swift Snake River by ferry, or by driving or sometimes floating their wagons and swimming their teams across. Hidden holes in the river bottom could overturn the wagon or entangle the team, and several drownings occurred nearly every year before ferries were established.[77]
The north side of the Snake had better water and grass than the south. The trail from Three Island Crossing to Old Fort Boise was about 130 miles (210 km) long. The next and final crossing of the Snake River was near Old Fort Boise, and could be done on bullboats while swimming the stock across. Others would chain a large string of wagons and teams together, hoping that the front teams, usually oxen, would get out of the water first and with good footing help pull the whole string of wagons and teams across. Often, Native American boys who could swim were hired to drive and ride the stock across the river. In present-day Idaho,
Starting in about 1848, the South Alternate of Oregon Trail (also called the Snake River Cutoff) was developed as a spur off the main trail. It bypassed the Three Island Crossing and continued traveling down the south side of the Snake River. It rejoined the trail near present-day Ontario, Oregon. It hugged the southern edge of the Snake River Canyon and was a much rougher trail with poorer water and grass, requiring occasional steep descents and ascents with the animals down into the Snake River Canyon to get water. Travelers on this route avoided two dangerous crossings of the Snake River.[78] In present-day Idaho, the state highway ID-78 roughly follows the path of the South Alternate route of the Oregon Trail.
In 1869, the Central Pacific established Kelton, Utah as a railhead and the terminus of the western mail was moved from Salt Lake City. The Kelton Road became important as a communication and transportation road to the Boise Basin.[79]
Boise has 21 monuments in the shape of obelisks along its portion of the Oregon Trail.[80]
Oregon
Once across the Snake River ford near Old Fort Boise the weary travelers traveled across what would become the state of Oregon. The trail then went to the
Arriving at the Columbia at The Dalles and stopped by the
Several Oregon Trail branches and route variations led to the Willamette Valley. The most popular was the Barlow Road, which was carved through the forest around Mount Hood from The Dalles in 1846 as a toll road at $5 per wagon and 10 cents per head of livestock. It was rough and steep with poor grass but still cheaper and safer than floating goods, wagons, and family down the dangerous Columbia River.
In Central Oregon, there was the Santiam Wagon Road (established 1861), which roughly parallels Oregon Highway 20 to the Willamette Valley. The Applegate Trail (established 1846), cutting off the California Trail from the Humboldt River in Nevada, crossed part of California before cutting north to the south end of the Willamette Valley. U.S. Route 99 and Interstate 5 through Oregon roughly follow the original Applegate Trail.
Travel equipment
Wagons and pack animals
Three types of draft and pack animals were used by Oregon Trail pioneers: oxen, mules, and horses.[81]
By 1842, many emigrants favored oxen— castrated bulls (males) of the genus Bos (cattle), generally over four years old; as the best animal to pull wagons, because they were docile, generally healthy, and able to continue moving in difficult conditions such as mud and snow.[81] Oxen could also survive on prairie grasses and sage, unlike horses, who had to be fed. Moreover, oxen were less expensive to purchase and maintain than horses.[81] Oxen also could stand idle for long periods without suffering damage to the feet and legs.[81] Oxen were trained by leading, the use of a whip or goad, and the use of oral commands (such as "Gee" (right), "Haw" (left), and "Whoa" (stop)).[81] Two oxen were typically yoked together at the neck or head; the left ox was referred to as the "near" or "nigh" ox, and the right ox as the "off" ox.[81] While no reins, bits, or halters were needed, the trainer had to be forceful. Oxen typically traveled at a steady pace up to two miles an hour.[81]
One drawback of oxen was the difficulty of shoeing. Oxen hooves are cloven (split), and they had to be shod with two curved pieces of metal, one on each side of the hoof. While horses and mules allowed themselves to be shod relatively easily, the process was more difficult with oxen, who would lie down and tuck their feet under themselves.[81] As a result, several men had to lift and hold an ox while he was being shod.[81]
Mules were used by some emigrants.[81] The competing merits of oxen and mules were hotly debated among emigrants.[82] Some found oxen to be more durable.[81] Others, by contrast, believed that mules were more durable, and mules may have had a lower attrition rate on the trail than oxen.[82] Like oxen, mules could survive on prairie grasses.[81] Mules were, however, notoriously ill-tempered.[81] Mules also cost about three times as much as oxen, a deciding factor for many emigrants.[82][83]
Three types of wagons were pulled:
- Conestoga wagons, a heavy type of covered wagon
- Covered wagon ("prairie schooners"), lighter than a Conestoga and often just a covered farm wagon.
- Studebaker (see § History)
Food
In 1855, the typical cost of food for four people for six months was about $150 which would cost almost $5,000 today.[84]
Food and water were key concerns for migrants. Wagons typically carried at least one large water keg,[85][86] and guidebooks available from the 1840s and later gave similar advice to migrants on what food to take. T. H. Jefferson, in his Brief Practice Advice guidebook for migrants, recommended that each adult take 200 pounds of flour: "Take plenty of breadstuffs; this is the staff of life when everything else runs short."[85][86]
Food often took the form of crackers or hardtack; Southerners sometimes chose cornmeal or pinole rather than wheat flour.[85] Emigrants typically ate rice and beans only at forts stopped at along the way, because boiling water was difficult on the trail, and fuel was not abundant.[85] Lansford Hastings recommended that each emigrant take 200 pounds of flour, 150 pounds of "bacon" (a word which, at the time, referred broadly to all forms of salt pork), 20 pounds of sugar, and 10 pounds of salt.[85][86] Chipped beef, rice, tea, dried beans, dried fruit, saleratus (for raising bread), vinegar, pickles, mustard, and tallow might also be taken.[85][86] Joseph Ware's 1849 guide recommends that travelers take for each individual a barrel of flour or 180 pounds of ship's biscuit (i.e., hardtack), 150–180 pounds of bacon, 60 pounds of beans or peas, 25 pounds of rice, 25 pounds of coffee, 40 pounds of sugar, a keg of lard, 30 or 40 pounds of dried fruit (peaches or apples), a keg of clear, rendered beef suet (to substitute for butter), as well as some vinegar, salt, and pepper.[86] Many emigrant families also carried a small amount of tea and maple sugar.[85]
Randolph B. Marcy, an army officer who wrote an 1859 guide, advised taking less bacon than the earlier guides had recommended. He advised emigrants to drive cattle instead as a source of fresh beef.[85] Marcy also instructed emigrants to store sides of bacon in canvas bags or in boxes surrounded by bran to protect against extreme heat, which could make bacon go rancid.[86] Marcy instructed emigrants to put salt pork on the bottom of wagons to avoid exposure to extreme heat.[86] Marcy also recommended the use of pemmican, as well as the storage of sugar in India rubber or gutta-percha sacks, to prevent it from becoming wet.[86]
Canning technology had just begun to be developed, and it gained in popularity through the period of westward expansion. Initially, only upper-class migrants typically used canned goods.[85] There are references in sources to canned cheese, fruit, meat, oysters, and sardines.[85] By the time Marcy wrote his 1859 guide, canned foods were increasingly available but remained expensive. Canning also added weight to a wagon. Rather than canned vegetables, Marcy suggested that travelers take dried vegetables, which had been used in the Crimean War and by the U.S. Army.[86]
Some pioneers took
At the time,
Mostly middle-class emigrant families prided themselves on preparing a good table. Although operating Dutch ovens and kneading dough was difficult on the trail, many baked good bread and even pies.[85]
For fuel to heat food, travelers would collect
Clothing, equipment, and supplies
Tobacco was popular, both for personal use and for trading with natives and other pioneers. Each person brought at least two changes of clothes and multiple pairs of boots (two to three pairs often worn out on the trip). About 25 pounds of soap was recommended for a party of four, for bathing and washing clothes. A washboard and tub were usually brought for washing clothes. Wash days typically occur once or twice a month, or less, depending on the availability of good grass, water, and fuel.
Most wagons carried tents for sleeping, though in good weather most would sleep outside. A thin fold-up mattress, blankets, pillows, canvas, or rubber gutta-percha ground covers were used for sleeping. Sometimes an unfolded feather bed mattress was brought for the wagon if there were pregnant women or very young children along. Storage boxes were ideally the same height, so they could be arranged to give a flat surface inside the wagon for a sleeping platform.
The wagons had no springs, and the ride along the trail was very rough. Despite modern depictions, hardly anyone rode in the wagons; it was too dusty, too rough, and too hard on the livestock.
Travelers brought books, Bibles, trail guides, and writing quills, ink, and paper for writing letters or journalling (about one in 200 kept a diary).[87]
A belt and folding knives were carried by nearly all men and boys. Awls, scissors, pins, needles, and thread for mending were required. Spare leather was used for repairing shoes, harnesses, and other equipment. Some used goggles to keep dust out of the eyes.
Saddles, bridles, hobbles, and ropes were needed if the party had a horse or riding mule, and many men did. Extra harnesses and spare wagon parts were often carried. Most carried steel shoes for horses, mules, or livestock. Tar was carried to help repair an ox's injured hoof.
Goods, supplies, and equipment were often shared by fellow travelers.[88] Items that were forgotten, broken, or worn out could be bought from a fellow traveler, post, or fort along the way. New iron shoes for horses, mules, and oxen were put on by blacksmiths found along the way. Equipment repairs and other goods could be procured from blacksmith shops established at some forts and some ferries. Emergency supplies, repairs, and livestock were often provided by residents in California, Oregon, and Utah for late travelers on the trail who were hurrying to beat the snow.
Non-essential items were often abandoned to lighten the load or in case of emergency. Many travelers would salvage discarded items, picking up essentials or leaving behind their lower-quality items when a better one was found abandoned along the road. Some profited by collecting discarded items, hauling them back to jumping-off places, and reselling them. In the early years, Mormons sent scavenging parties back along the trail to salvage as much iron and other supplies as possible and haul it to Salt Lake City, where supplies of all kinds were needed.[89] Others would use discarded furniture, wagons, and wheels as firewood. During the 1849 gold rush, Fort Laramie was known as "Camp Sacrifice" because of the large amounts of merchandise discarded nearby.[90] Travelers had pushed along the relatively easy path to Fort Laramie with their luxury items but discarded them before the difficult mountain crossing ahead, and after discovering that many items could be purchased at the forts or located for free along the way. Some travelers carried their excess goods to Salt Lake City to be sold.
Professional tools used by blacksmiths, carpenters, and farmers were carried by nearly all. Axes, crowbars, hammers, hatchets, hoes, mallets, mattocks, picks, planes, saws, scythes, and shovels[91] were used to clear or make a road through brush or trees, cut down the banks to cross a wash or steeply banked stream, build a raft or bridge, or repair the wagon. In general, as little road work as possible was done. Travel was often along the top of ridges to avoid the brush and washes common in many valleys.
Statistics
Overall, some 268,000 pioneers used the Oregon Trail and its three primary offshoots, the Bozeman, California, and Mormon Trails, to reach the West Coast, 1840–1860. Another 48,000 headed to Utah. There is no estimate on how many used it to return East.[92]
Emigrants
Year | Oregon | California | Utah | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
1834–39 | 20 | − | − | 20 |
1840 | 13 | − | − | 13 |
1841 | 24 | 34 | − | 58 |
1842 | 125 | − | − | 125 |
1843 | 875 | 38 | − | 913 |
1844 | 1,475 | 53 | − | 1,528 |
1845 | 2,500 | 260 | − | 2,760 |
1846 | 1,200 | 1,500 | − | 2,700 |
1847 | 4,000 | 450 | 2,200 | 6,650 |
1848 | 1,300 | 400 | 2,400 | 4,100 |
Total | 11,512 | 2,735 | 4,600 | 18,847 |
1849 | 450 | 25,000 | 1,500 | 26,950 |
1850 | 6,000 | 44,000 | 2,500 | 52,500 |
1851 | 3,600 | 1,100 | 1,500 | 6,200 |
1852 | 10,000 | 50,000 | 10,000 | 70,000 |
1853 | 7,500 | 20,000 | 8,000 | 35,500 |
1854 | 6,000 | 12,000 | 3,200 | 21,200 |
1855 | 500 | 1,500 | 4,700 | 6,700 |
1856 | 1,000 | 8,000 | 2,400 | 11,400 |
1857 | 1,500 | 4,000 | 1,300 | 6,800 |
1858 | 1,500 | 6,000 | 150 | 7,650 |
1859 | 2,000 | 17,000 | 1,400 | 20,400 |
1860 | 1,500 | 9,000 | 1,600 | 12,100 |
Total | 53,000 | 200,300 | 43,000 | 296,300 |
1834–60 | Oregon | California | Utah[93] | Total[94] |
1861 | − | − | 3,148 | 5,000 |
1862 | − | − | 5,244 | 5,000 |
1863 | − | − | 4,760 | 10,000 |
1864 | − | − | 2,626 | 10,000 |
1865 | − | − | 690 | 20,000 |
1866 | − | − | 3,299 | 25,000 |
1867 | − | − | 700 | 25,000 |
1868 | − | − | 4,285 | 25,000 |
Total | 80,000 | 250,000 | 70,000 | 400,000 |
1834–67 | Oregon | California | Utah | Total |
Some of the trail statistics for the early years were recorded by the U.S. Army at Fort Laramie, Wyoming, from about 1849 to 1855. None of these original statistical records have been found—the Army either lost them or destroyed them. Only some partial written copies of the Army records and notes recorded in several diaries have survived.
Emigration to California spiked considerably with the
Travel diminished after 1860, as the Civil War caused considerable disruptions on the trail. Many of the people on the trail in 1861–1863 were fleeing the war and its attendant drafts in both the South and the North. Trail historian Merrill J. Mattes[95] has estimated the number of emigrants for 1861–1867 given in the total column of the above table. But these estimates may well be low since they only amount to an extra 125,000 people, and the 1870 census shows that over 200,000 additional people (ignoring most of the population increase in California, which had excellent sea and rail connections across Panama by then) showed up in all the states served by the Bozeman, California, Mormon, and Oregon Trails and their offshoots.
Mormon emigration records after 1860 are reasonably accurate, as newspapers and other accounts in Salt Lake City give most of the names of emigrants arriving each year from 1847 to 1868.[93] Gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and Oregon caused a considerable increase in people using the trails, often in directions different from the original trail users.
Though the numbers are significant in the context of the times, far more people chose to remain at home in the 31 states. Between 1840 and 1860, the population of the United States rose by 14 million, yet only about 300,000 decided to make the trip. Many were discouraged by the cost, effort, and danger of the trip. Western scout Kit Carson is thought to have said, "The cowards never started and the weak died on the way", though the general saying was written[
Many who went were between the ages of 12 and 24. Between 1860 and 1870, the U.S. population increased by seven million; about 350,000 of this increase was in the Western states.
Western census data
State | 1860 | 1870 | Difference |
---|---|---|---|
California | 379,994 | 560,247 | 180,253 |
Nevada | 6,857 | 42,491 | 35,634 |
Oregon | 52,465 | 90,923 | 38,458 |
Colorado[99] | 34,277 | 39,684 | 5,407 |
Idaho[99] | − | 14,990 | 14,990 |
Montana[99] | − | 20,595 | 20,595 |
Utah[99] | 40,273 | 86,789 | 46,516 |
Washington[99] | 11,594 | 23,955 | 12,361 |
Wyoming[99] | − | 9,118 | 9,118 |
Totals | 525,460 | 888,792 | 363,332 |
These census numbers show a 363,000 population increase in the western states and territories between 1860 and 1870. Some of this increase is because of a high birth rate in the western states and territories, but most is from emigrants moving from the east to the west and new immigration from Europe. Much of the increase in California and Oregon was from emigration by ship, as there was fast and reasonably low-cost transportation via East and West Coast steamships and the Panama Railroad after 1855. The census numbers imply at least 200,000 emigrants (or more) used some variation of the California/Oregon/Mormon/Bozeman Trails to get to their new homes between 1860 and 1870.
Costs
The cost of traveling over the Oregon Trail and its extensions varied from nothing to a few hundred dollars per person. Women seldom went alone. The cheapest way was to hire one to help drive the wagons or herds, allowing one to make the trip for nearly nothing or even make a small profit. Those with capital could often buy livestock in the
Deaths
Cause | Estimated deaths |
---|---|
Disease | 6,000–12,500 |
Native American attack | 3,000–4,500 |
Freezing | 300–500 |
Scurvy | 300–500 |
Run overs | 200–500 |
Drownings | 200–500 |
Shootings | 200–500 |
Miscellaneous | 200–500 |
Totals | 10,400–20,000 |
The route west was arduous and fraught with many dangers, but the number of deaths on the trail is not known with any precision; there are only widely varying estimates. Estimating is difficult because of the common practice of burying people in unmarked graves that were intentionally disguised to avoid being dug up by animals or natives. Graves were often put in the middle of a trail and then run over by the livestock to make them difficult to find. Disease was the main killer of trail travelers; cholera killed up to 3 percent of all travelers in the epidemic years from 1849 to 1855.
Native attacks increased significantly after 1860, when most of the army troops were withdrawn, and miners and ranchers began fanning out all over the country, often encroaching on Native American territory. Increased attacks along the Humboldt led to most travelers taking the
Other common causes of death included hypothermia, drowning in river crossings, getting run over by wagons, and accidental gun deaths. Later, more family groups started traveling, and many more bridges and ferries were being put in, so fording a dangerous river became much less common and dangerous. Surprisingly few people were taught to swim in this era. Being run over was a major cause of death, despite the wagons' only averaging 2–3 miles per hour. The wagons could not easily be stopped, and people, particularly children, were often trying to get on and off the wagons while they were moving—not always successfully. Another hazard was a dress getting caught in the wheels and pulling the person under. Accidental shootings declined significantly after Fort Laramie, as people became more familiar with their weapons and often just left them in their wagons. Carrying around a ten-pound rifle all day soon became tedious and usually unnecessary, as the perceived threat of natives faded and hunting opportunities receded.
A significant number of travelers were suffering from scurvy by the end of their trips. Their typical flour and salted pork/bacon diet had very little vitamin C in it. The diet in the mining camps was also typically low in fresh vegetables and fruit, which indirectly led to the early deaths of many of the inhabitants. Some believe that scurvy deaths may have rivaled cholera as a killer, with most deaths occurring after the victim reached California.[103]
Miscellaneous deaths included deaths by
Reaching the
Disease
Disease was the biggest killer on the Oregon Trail.
Airborne diseases also commonly affect travelers. One such disease was diphtheria, to which young children were particularly susceptible.[110] It could spread quickly in close quarters, such as the parties that traveled the trail.[111] Measles was also a difficulty, as it is highly contagious and can have an incubation period of ten days or longer.[112] Diseases could spread particularly quickly because settlers had no place to quarantine the sick and because poor sanitation was typical along the route.[113]
Other trails west
There were other possible migration paths for early settlers, miners, or travelers to California or Oregon besides the Oregon trail before the establishment of the transcontinental railroads.
From 1821 to 1846, the Hudson's Bay Company twice annually used the York Factory Express overland trade route from Fort Vancouver to Hudson Bay and then on to London. James Sinclair led a large party of nearly 200 settlers from the Red River Colony in 1841. These northern routes were largely abandoned after Britain ceded its claim to the southern Columbia River basin by way of the Oregon Treaty of 1846.
The longest trip was the voyage of about 13,600 to 15,000 miles (21,900 to 24,100 km) on an uncomfortable sailing ship rounding the treacherous, cold, and dangerous Cape Horn between Antarctica and South America and then sailing on to California or Oregon. This trip typically took four to seven months (120 to 210 days) and cost about $350 to $500. The cost could be reduced to zero if you signed on as a crewman and worked as a common seaman. The hundreds of abandoned ships, whose crews had deserted in San Francisco Bay in 1849–50, showed many thousands chose to do this.
Other routes involved taking a ship to
Another route was established by Cornelius Vanderbilt across Nicaragua in 1849. The 120-mile (190 km) long San Juan River to the Atlantic Ocean helps drain the 100-mile (160 km) long Lake Nicaragua. From the western shore of Lake Nicaragua, it is only about 12 miles (19 km) to the Pacific Ocean. Vanderbilt decided to use paddle wheel steamships from the U.S. to the San Juan River, small paddle wheel steam launches on the San Juan River, boats across Lake Nicaragua, and a stagecoach to the Pacific where connections could be made with another ship headed to California, Oregon, etc. Vanderbilt, by undercutting fares to the Isthmus of Panama and stealing many of the Panama Railroad workers, managed to attract roughly 30% of the California-bound steamboat traffic. All his connections in Nicaragua were never completely worked out before the Panama Railroad's completion in 1855. Civil strife in Nicaragua and payment to Cornelius Vanderbilt of a "non-compete" payment (bribe) of $56,000 per year killed the whole project in 1855.[115]
Another possible route consisted of taking a ship to Mexico traversing the country and then catching another ship out of
The
Running from 1857 to 1861, the Butterfield Stage Line won the $600,000/yr. U.S. mail contract to deliver mail to San Francisco, California. As dictated by southern Congressional members, the 2,800-mile (4,500 km) route ran from
The ultimate competitor arrived in 1869, the first transcontinental railroad, which cut travel time to about seven days at a low fare of about $60 (economy)[116]
Legacy
One of the enduring legacies of the Oregon Trail is the expansion of the United States territory to the West Coast. Without the many thousands of United States settlers in Oregon and California, and thousands more on their way each year, it is highly unlikely that this would have occurred.
Arts, entertainment, and media
The western expansion, and the Oregon Trail in particular, inspired numerous creative works about the settlers' experiences.
Commemorative coin
The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar was coined to commemorate the route. Issued intermittently between 1926 and 1939, 202,928 were sold to the public. With 131,050 minted in 1926, that year's issue remains readily available for collectors.
Music
The Oregon Trail has featured in various songs, especially in western music genres.
"The Oregon Trail" is a song written by Peter DeRose and Billy Hill, recorded by singing cowboy artist Tex Ritter in 1935, and by Australian country musician Tex Morton in 1936.
Woody Guthrie wrote and recorded a song entitled "Oregon Trail" while traveling in the region in 1941. It was the opening track in his Columbia River Collection album.
Games
The story of the Oregon Trail inspired the educational video game series The Oregon Trail, which became widely popular in the 1980s and early 1990s.
In 2014, a musical named The Trail to Oregon!, based on The Oregon Trail game, with music and lyrics by Jeff Blim and a book by Jeff Blim, Nick Lang and Matt Lang was performed in Chicago and later posted to YouTube by StarKid Productions.[117]
Television
The episode of Teen Titans Go! titled "Oregon Trail" parodies expeditions that took place on the Oregon Trail, as well as the 1985 video game The Oregon Trail.
Film
The animated film Calamity, a Childhood of Martha Jane Cannary portrays the expedition of a dozen wagons to Oregon, part of which was the young Calamity Jane.
See also
- Kansas Territory
- Landmarks of the Nebraska Territory
- National Historic Oregon Trail Interpretive Center
- National Historic Trails Interpretive Center
- Nebraska Territory
- Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar
- Route of the Oregon Trail
- The Oregon Trail: Sketches of Prairie and Rocky-Mountain Life
- Trailside Center
- The West as America Art Exhibition
References
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- ^ Johnson, Randall A. "The Mullan Road: A Real Northwest Passage" (Reprint of 1995 article in The Pacific Northwesterner, Vol. 39, No. 2). History Ink. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
- ^ "Tonquin". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on June 6, 2013. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
- ISBN 9780771020995.
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- ISBN 978-0-8032-9234-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7748-0613-8. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
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- ^ "Area Histories: Historical Maps". North East Winnipeg Historical Society Inc. (2010). Retrieved October 12, 2017.
- ^ It was not until later that the Ogallala Aquifer was discovered and used for irrigation, dry farming techniques developed and rail tracks laid.
- ^ "Idaho Fiur Trade" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 16, 2009. Retrieved April 16, 2009.
- ISBN 1-58685-756-8
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- ^ "Oregon Emigrants 1839". Oregonpioneers.com. Retrieved May 20, 2012.
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- ^ Members of the party later disagreed over the size of the party, one stating 160 adults and children were in the party, while another counted 105.
- ^ "The Wagon Train of 1843: The Great Migration". Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved December 22, 2007.
- ^ Events in The West: 1840–1850 PBS. Retrieved December 22, 2007.
- ^ "Reviews". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 34 (4). 1935.
- ^ . Oregon Historical Quarterly. 1900.
- ISBN 0300089244.
- ^ Lillian Schlissel, "Women's diaries on the western frontier." American Studies (1977): 87–100 online.
- ^ Sandra L. Myres, ed., Ho for California!: Women's Overland Diaries from the Huntington Library (Huntington Library Press, 1980)
- JSTOR 969452.
- ^ Kenneth L. Holmes, Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, Introduction by Anne M. Butler, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press, (1983) pp 1–10.
- ^ From the letter of Anna Maria King, in Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, by Kenneth L. Holmes, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, 1983, p. 41.
- ^ Peavy, Linda S. & Ursula Smith. Pioneer Women: The Lives of Women on the Frontier. University of Oklahoma Press, 1998, p. 40.
- ^ From the letter of Betsey Bayley, in Covered Wagon Women, Volume 1, by Kenneth L. Holmes, ebook version, University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, 1983, p. 35.
- ^ "Mormons in Iowa towns". Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved January 5, 2009.
- ^ Peters (1996), p. 109.
- ^ "American West - Oregon Trail". American West. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010.
- ^ "U.S. Seventh Census 1850: California" (PDF). Retrieved August 18, 2011.
The 1850 U.S. California Census, the first census that included everyone, showed only about 7,019 females with 4,165 non-native females older than 15 in the state. To find a "correct" census there should be added about 20,000 men and about 1,300 females from San Francisco, Santa Clara, and Contra Costa counties whose censuses were lost and not included in the official totals.
- ^ "U.S. Seventh Census 1850: California" (PDF). Retrieved August 18, 2011.
- ^ Greeley, Horace. "An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859". www.yosemite.ca.us. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
- ^ Unruh (1993), pp. 410.
- ^ Simpson, J. H. (1876). Report of Explorations across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b Pony Express Trail maps, Retrieved January 28, 2009
- ISBN 978-0-252-06360-2.
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- ^ "Railroad ticket 1870 Transcontinental Railroad Statistics". Archived from the original on June 24, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
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- ISBN 978-0-375-41399-5.
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- ^ Mattes, Merrill J.; op. cit.; p. 23
- ^ Joaquin Miller (January 1881). A. Roman (ed.). "Old Californians". The Californian. III. San Francisco: The California Publishing Company: 48. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
The cowards did not start to the Pacific Coast in the old days; all the weak died on the way. And so it was that we had then not only a race of giants but of gods.
- ^ Lloyd W. Coffman, 1993, Blazing a Wagon Trail to Oregon
- ^ "U.S. Census 1790–1870" (PDF). Retrieved May 20, 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Territory
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- ^ Unruh (1993), p. 408.
- ^ a b Unruh (1993), pp. 408–410, 516.
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- ISBN 978-0226726779.)
{{cite book}}
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Bibliography
Primary sources
- OCLC 5001642.
- Hewitt, Randall (1863). Notes by the way: memoranda of a journey across the plains, from Dundee, Ill., to Olympia, W. T. May 7, to November 3, 1862 (DJVU). Washington Standard. OCLC 51465106.
- Myres, Sandra L., ed. Ho for California!: Women's Overland Diaries from the Huntington Library (2007)
- Parkman, Francis, The Oregon Trail: Sketches of Prairie and Rocky-Mountain Life. University of Virginia Press., personal account by a famous historian
- Smedley, William (1916). Across the Plains in '62 (DJVU). Ye Galleon Press. OCLC 4981167.
- Ward, D. B. (1911). Across the Plains in 1853 (DJVU). Ward. OCLC 2931824.
- Williams, Joseph (1921). Narrative of a Tour from the State of Indiana to the Oregon Territory in the Years 1841–2 (DJVU). Standard. OCLC 2095243.
Secondary sources
- Bagley, Will. So Rugged and Mountainous: Blazing the Trails to Oregon and California, 1812–1848 (University of Oklahoma Press; 458 pages; 2010). The first book is a projected four-volume study of the course and impact of Western migration.
- Dary, David. The Oregon Trail: An American Saga (Alfred A. Knopf: 2004). A one-volume history of the Oregon Trail.
- Faragher, John Mack. Women and Men on the Overland Trail (2nd ed. 2001) excerpt and text search
- Federal Writers' Project. The Oregon Trail: the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean (1939) online edition, 244pp
- Hanson, T J (2001). Western Passage. Bookmasters, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9705847-0-0.
- Peters, Arthur K. (1996). Seven trail west. Abbeville Press. ISBN 978-1-55859-782-2.
- Unruh, John David (1979). The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1860. University of Illinois Press. the standard scholarly history
External links
- Oregon National Historic Trail (National Park Service)
- Oregon Trail history (archived from a broken Oregon Department of Transportation link; with maps)
- Pathways of Pioneers: Idaho's Oregon Trail Legacy – Documentary produced by Idaho Public Television
- Oregon National Historic Trail – Bureau of Land Management page