Organ transplantation
Organ transplant | |
---|---|
MeSH | D016377 |
Occupation | |
---|---|
Names |
|
Occupation type | Specialty |
Activity sectors | Medicine, Surgery |
Description | |
Education required |
|
Fields of employment | Hospitals, Clinics |
Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an
Organs that have been successfully transplanted include the
Organ donors may be living,
Transplantation medicine is one of the most challenging and complex areas of modern medicine. Some of the key areas for medical management are the problems of
Types of transplant
Autograft
Autografts are the transplant of tissue to the same person. Sometimes this is done with surplus tissue, tissue that can regenerate, or tissues more desperately needed elsewhere (examples include skin grafts, vein extraction for
Allograft and allotransplantation
An allograft is a transplant of an organ or tissue between two genetically non-identical members of the same
Isograft
An isograft is a subset of allograft in which organs or tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an immune response.
Xenograft and xenotransplantation
A xenograft is a transplant of organs or tissue from one species to another. An example is porcine heart valve transplant, which is quite common and successful. Another example is attempted piscine–primate (fish to non-human primate) transplant of pancreatic islets. The latter research study was intended to pave the way for potential human use if successful. However, xenotransplantation is often an extremely dangerous type of transplant because of the increased risk of non-functional compatibility, rejection, and disease carried in the tissue. In the opposite direction, attempts are being made to devise a way to transplant human fetal hearts and kidneys into animals for future transplantation into human patients to address the shortage of donor organs.[9]
Domino transplants
In people with cystic fibrosis (CF), where both lungs need to be replaced, it is a technically easier operation with a higher rate of success to replace both the heart and lungs of the recipient with those of the donor. As the recipient's original heart is usually healthy, it can then be transplanted into a second recipient in need of a heart transplant, thus making the person with CF a living heart donor.[10] In a 2016 case at Stanford Medical Center, a woman who was needing a heart-lung transplant had cystic fibrosis which had led to one lung expanding and the other shrinking, thereby displacing her heart. The second patient who in turn received her heart was a woman with right ventricular dysplasia which had led to a dangerously abnormal rhythm. The dual operations required three surgical teams, including one to remove the heart and lungs from a recently deceased initial donor. The two living recipients did well and had an opportunity to meet six weeks after their simultaneous operations.[11]
Another example of this situation occurs with a special form of liver transplant in which the recipient has familial amyloid polyneuropathy, a disease where the liver slowly produces a protein that damages other organs. The recipient's liver can then be transplanted into an older person for whom the effects of the disease will not necessarily contribute significantly to mortality.[12]
This term also refers to a series of living donor transplants in which one donor donates to the highest recipient on the waiting list and the transplant center utilizes that donation to facilitate multiple transplants. These other transplants are otherwise impossible due to
In May 2023,
ABO-incompatible transplants
Because very young children (generally under 12 months, but often as old as 24 months[18]) do not have a well-developed immune system,[19] it is possible for them to receive organs from otherwise incompatible donors. This is known as ABO-incompatible (ABOi) transplantation. Graft survival and people's mortality are approximately the same between ABOi and ABO-compatible (ABOc) recipients.[20] While focus has been on infant heart transplants, the principles generally apply to other forms of solid organ transplantation.[18]
The most important factors are that the recipient not have produced
Limited success has been achieved in ABO-incompatible heart transplants in adults,[26] though this requires that the adult recipients have low levels of anti-A or anti-B antibodies.[26] Renal transplantation is more successful, with similar long-term graft survival rates to ABOc transplants.[23]
Transplantation in obese individuals
Until recently, people with
Organs and tissues transplanted
Chest
- Heart (deceased-donor only; porcine xenograft attempted)
- Lung (deceased-donor and living-related lung transplantation)
- Thymus
Abdomen
- Kidney (deceased-donor and living-donor; porcine xenograft attempted)
- Liver (deceased-donor, which enables donation of a whole liver; and living-donor, where each donor can provide up to 70% of a liver)
- Pancreas (deceased-donor only; a very severe type of diabetes ensues if a live person's entire pancreas is removed)
- Intestine (deceased-donor and living-donor; normally refers to the small intestine)
- Stomach (deceased-donor only)
- Uterus (deceased-donor only)[29][30]
- Testis[31] (deceased-donor and living-donor)
- Penis (deceased-donor only)
Tissues, cells and fluids
- Clint Hallam
- ophthalmologist Eduard Zirm
- Skin, including face replant (autograft) and face transplant(extremely rare)
- Islets of Langerhans(pancreas islet cells) (deceased-donor and living-donor)
- Bone marrow or adult stem cell(living-donor and autograft)
- Blood transfusion, whole blood or fractionated blood products (living-donor and autograft)
- Blood vessels(autograft and deceased-donor)
- bovine])
- Bone(deceased-donor and living-donor)
Indication of transplantation
- Kidney transplantation is becoming increasingly common and is the preferred treatment for end-stage renal failure.[32] [1]
- Liver transplantation is the only curative therapy for end-stage liver disease, and the liver is the second most frequently transplanted solid organ.[33][2]
- Pancreatic transplantation is a complex surgical procedure performed in patients with severe chronic diabetes, often in association with renal transplantation.[34][3]
- Heart transplantation is increasingly performed in patients with end-stage heart failure, most often related to ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathies.[35][4]
Complications
The main complications are procedural complications, infection, acute rejection, cardiac allograft vasculopathy and malignancy.[35]
Non-vascular and vascular complications can occur in the initial post-transplant phase and at later stages. Overall postoperative complications after kidney transplantation occur in approximately 12% to 25% of kidney transplant patients.[32]
Types of donor
Organ donors may be living or may have died of brain death or circulatory death. Most deceased donors are those who have been pronounced brain dead. Brain dead means the cessation of brain function, typically after receiving an injury (either traumatic or pathological) to the brain, or otherwise cutting off blood circulation to the brain (
Organ donation is possible after cardiac death in some situations, primarily when the person is severely brain-injured and not expected to survive without artificial breathing and mechanical support. Independent of any decision to donate, a person's next-of-kin may decide to end artificial support. If the person is expected to expire within a short period of time after support is withdrawn, arrangements can be made to withdraw that support in an operating room to allow quick recovery of the organs after circulatory death has occurred.
Tissues may be recovered from donors who die of either brain or circulatory death. In general, tissues may be recovered from donors up to 24 hours past the cessation of heartbeat. In contrast to organs, most tissues (with the exception of corneas) can be preserved and stored for up to five years, meaning they can be "banked." Also, more than 60 grafts may be obtained from a single tissue donor. Because of these three factors – the ability to recover from a non-heart-beating donor, the ability to bank tissue, and the number of grafts available from each donor – tissue transplants are much more common than organ transplants. The American Association of Tissue Banks estimates that more than one million tissue transplants take place in the United States each year.
Living donor
In living donors, the donor remains alive and donates a renewable tissue, cell, or fluid (e.g., blood, skin), or donates an organ or part of an organ in which the remaining organ can regenerate or take on the workload of the rest of the organ (primarily single kidney donation, partial donation of liver, lung lobe, small bowel). Regenerative medicine may one day allow for laboratory-grown organs, using person's own cells via stem cells, or healthy cells extracted from the failing organs.[37]
Deceased donor
Deceased donors (formerly cadaveric) are people who have been declared brain-dead and whose organs are kept viable by
Allocation of organs
In most countries there is a shortage of suitable organs for transplantation. Countries often have formal systems in place to manage the process of determining who is an organ donor and in what order organ recipients receive available organs.
The overwhelming majority of deceased-donor organs in the United States are allocated by federal contract to the
An example of "line jumping" occurred in 2003 at Duke University when doctors attempted to correct an initially incorrect transplant. An American teenager received a heart-lung donation with the wrong blood type for her. She then received a second transplant even though she was then in such poor physical shape that she normally would not be considered a good candidate for a transplant.[42]
In an April 2008 article in The Guardian, Steven Tsui, the head of the transplant team at Papworth Hospital in the UK, is quoted in raising the ethical issue of not holding out false hope. He stated, "Conventionally we would say if people's life expectancy was a year or less we would consider them a candidate for a heart transplant. But we also have to manage expectations. If we know that in an average year we will do 30 heart transplants, there is no point putting 60 people on our waiting list, because we know half of them will die and it's not right to give them false hope."[6]
Experiencing somewhat increased popularity, but still very rare, is directed or targeted donation, in which the family of a deceased donor (often honoring the wishes of the deceased) requests an organ be given to a specific person, subverting the allocation system. In the United States, there are various lengths of waiting times due to the different availabilities of organs in different UNOS regions. In other countries such as the UK, only medical factors and the position on the waiting list can affect who receives the organ.
One of the more publicized cases of this type was the 1994 Chester and Patti Szuber transplant. This was the first time that a parent had received a heart donated by one of their own children. Although the decision to accept the heart from his recently killed child was not an easy decision, the Szuber family agreed that giving Patti's heart to her father would have been something that she would have wanted.[43][44]
Access to organ transplantation is one reason for the growth of medical tourism.
Reasons for donation and ethical issues
Living related donors donate to family members or friends in whom they have an emotional investment. The risk of surgery is offset by the psychological benefit of not losing someone related to them, or not seeing them suffer the ill effects of waiting on a list.
Paired exchange
A "paired-exchange" is a technique of matching willing living donors to compatible recipients using serotyping. For example, a spouse may be willing to donate a kidney to their partner but cannot since there is not a biological match. The willing spouse's kidney is donated to a matching recipient who also has an incompatible but willing spouse. The second donor must match the first recipient to complete the pair exchange. Typically the surgeries are scheduled simultaneously in case one of the donors decides to back out and the couples are kept anonymous from each other until after the transplant. Paired-donor exchange, led by work in the New England Program for Kidney Exchange as well as at Johns Hopkins University and the Ohio organ procurement organizations, may more efficiently allocate organs and lead to more transplants.
Paired exchange programs were popularized in the
The first pair exchange transplant in the US was in 2001 at
Good Samaritan
Good Samaritan or "altruistic" donation is giving a donation to someone that has no prior affiliation with the donor. The idea of altruistic donation is to give with no interest of personal gain, it is out of pure selflessness. On the other hand, the current allocation system does not assess a donor's motive, so altruistic donation is not a requirement.[55] Some people choose to do this out of a personal need to donate. Some donate to the next person on the list; others use some method of choosing a recipient based on criteria important to them. Websites are being developed that facilitate such donation. Over half of the members of the Jesus Christians, an Australian religious group, have donated kidneys in such a fashion.[56]
Financial compensation
Monetary compensation for organ donors, in the form of reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses, has been legalised in Australia,[57] and strictly only in the case of kidney transplant in the case of Singapore (minimal reimbursement is offered in the case of other forms of organ harvesting by Singapore). Kidney disease organizations in both countries have expressed their support.[58][59]
In compensated donation, donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs. This practice is common in some parts of the world, whether legal or not, and is one of the many factors driving medical tourism.[60]
In the illegal black market the donors may not get sufficient after-operation care,[61] the price of a kidney may be above $160,000,[62] middlemen take most of the money, the operation is more dangerous to both the donor and receiver, and the receiver often gets hepatitis or HIV.[63] In legal markets of Iran[64] the price of a kidney is $2,000 to $4,000.[63][65][66]
An article by Gary Becker and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations"[67] said that a free market could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modeling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000).
In the United States,
In an experimental survey, Elias, Lacetera and Macis (2019) find that preferences for compensation for kidney donors have strong moral foundations; participants in the experiment especially reject direct payments by patients, which they find would violate principles of fairness.[70]
Many countries have different approaches to organ donation such as the opt-out approach and many advertisements of organ donors, encouraging people to donate. Although these laws have been implemented in a certain country they are not forced upon everyone as it is an individual decision.
Two books, Kidney for Sale By Owner by Mark Cherry (Georgetown University Press, 2005) and Stakes and Kidneys: Why Markets in Human Body Parts are Morally Imperative by James Stacey Taylor: (Ashgate Press, 2005), advocate using markets to increase the supply of organs available for transplantation. In a 2004 journal article economist Alex Tabarrok argues that allowing organ sales, and elimination of organ donor lists will increase supply, lower costs and diminish social anxiety towards organ markets.[71]
Iran has had a legal market for kidneys since 1988.[72] The donor is paid approximately US$1200 by the government and also usually receives additional funds from either the recipient or local charities.[65][73] The Economist[74] and the Ayn Rand Institute[75] approve and advocate a legal market elsewhere. They argued that if 0.06% of Americans between 19 and 65 were to sell one kidney, the national waiting list would disappear (which, the Economist wrote, happened in Iran). The Economist argued that donating kidneys is no more risky than surrogate motherhood, which can be done legally for pay in most countries.
In Pakistan, 40 percent to 50 percent of the residents of some villages have only one kidney because they have sold the other for a transplant into a wealthy person, probably from another country, said Dr. Farhat Moazam of Pakistan, at a World Health Organization conference. Pakistani donors are offered $2,500 for a kidney but receive only about half of that because middlemen take so much.[76] In Chennai, southern India, poor fishermen and their families sold kidneys after their livelihoods were destroyed by the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. About 100 people, mostly women, sold their kidneys for 40,000–60,000 rupees ($900–1,350).[77] Thilakavathy Agatheesh, 30, who sold a kidney in May 2005 for 40,000 rupees said, "I used to earn some money selling fish but now the post-surgery stomach cramps prevent me from going to work." Most kidney sellers say that selling their kidney was a mistake.[78]
In Cyprus in 2010, police closed a fertility clinic under charges of trafficking in human eggs. The Petra Clinic, as it was known locally, brought in women from Ukraine and Russia for egg harvesting and sold the genetic material to foreign fertility tourists.
Forced donation
There have been concerns that certain authorities are harvesting organs from people deemed undesirable, such as prison populations. The World Medical Association stated that prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely, and therefore their organs must not be used for transplantation.[82]
According to former Chinese Deputy Minister of Health, Huang Jiefu, the practice of transplanting organs from executed prisoners is still occurring as of February 2017[update].
In May 2008, two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for "the Chinese government to fully explain the allegation of taking vital organs from Falun Gong practitioners and the source of organs for the sudden increase in organ transplants that has been going on in China since the year 2000".[91] People in other parts of the world are responding to this availability of organs, and a number of individuals (including US and Japanese citizens) have elected to travel to China or India as medical tourists to receive organ transplants which may have been sourced in what might be considered elsewhere to be unethical manner.[92][93][94][95][96]
Organ transplantation by region
Some estimates of the number of transplants performed in various regions of the world have been derived from the Global Burden of Disease Study.[97]
Kidney
(pmp*) |
Liver
(pmp) |
Heart
(pmp) | |
United States | 52 | 19 | 8 |
Europe | 27 | 10 | 4 |
Africa | 11 | 3.5 | 1 |
Asia | 3 | 0.3 | 0.03 |
Latin America | 13 | 1.6 | 0.5 |
*All numbers per million population |
According to the
In addition to the citizens waiting for organ transplants in the US and other developed nations, there are long waiting lists in the rest of the world. More than 2 million people need organ transplants in China, 50,000 waiting in Latin America (90% of whom are waiting for kidneys), as well as thousands more in the less documented continent of Africa. Donor bases vary in developing nations.
In Latin America the donor rate is 40–100 per million per year, similar to that of developed countries. However, in Uruguay, Cuba, and Chile, 90% of organ transplants came from cadaveric donors. Cadaveric donors represent 35% of donors in Saudi Arabia. There is continuous effort to increase the utilization of cadaveric donors in Asia; however, the popularity of living, single kidney donors in India yields a cadaveric donor prevalence of less than 1 per million population.
Traditionally, Muslims believe body desecration in life or death to be forbidden, and thus many reject organ transplant.[103] However most Muslim authorities nowadays accept the practice if another life will be saved.[104] As an example, it may be assumed in countries such as Singapore with a cosmopolitan populace that includes Muslims, a special Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura governing body is formed to look after the interests of Singapore's Muslim community over issues that includes their burial arrangements.
Organ transplantation in Singapore is generally overseen by the National Organ Transplant Unit of the Ministry of Health (Singapore).[105] Due to a diversity in mindsets and religious viewpoints, while Muslims on this island are generally not expected to donate their organs even upon death, youth in Singapore are educated on the Human Organ Transplant Act at the age of 18, which is around the age of military conscription. The Organ Donor Registry maintains two types of information, firstly people of Singapore that donate their organs or bodies for transplantation, research or education upon their death, under the Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act (MTERA),[106] and secondly people that object to the removal of kidneys, liver, heart and corneas upon death for the purpose of transplantation, under the Human Organ Transplant Act (HOTA).[107] The Live On social awareness movement is also formed to educate Singaporeans on organ donation.[108]
With regard to organ transplantation in Israel, there is a severe organ shortage due to religious objections by some rabbis who oppose all organ donations and others who advocate that a rabbi participate in all decision making regarding a particular donor[citation needed]. One-third of all heart transplants performed on Israelis are done in China; others are done in Europe. Dr. Jacob Lavee, head of the heart-transplant unit, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv, believes that "transplant tourism" is unethical and Israeli insurers should not pay for it. The organization HODS (Halachic Organ Donor Society) is working to increase knowledge and participation in organ donation among Jews throughout the world.[115]
Transplantation rates also differ based on race, sex, and income. A study done with people beginning long term dialysis showed that the sociodemographic barriers to renal transplantation present themselves even before patients are on the transplant list.[116] For example, different groups express definite interest and complete pretransplant workup at different rates. Previous efforts to create fair transplantation policies had focused on people currently on the transplantation waiting list.
In the United States, nearly 35,000 organ transplants were done in 2017, a 3.4 percent increase over 2016. About 18 percent of these were from living donors – people who gave one kidney or a part of their liver to someone else. But 115,000 Americans remain on waiting lists for organ transplants.[117] By September 2022, the US had reached one million organ transplants overall.[118]
History
Successful human
Several apocryphal accounts of transplants exist well prior to the scientific understanding and advancements that would be necessary for them to have actually occurred. The
The more likely accounts of early transplants deal with skin transplantation. The first reasonable account is of the
The first successful corneal allograft transplant was performed in 1837 in a
The first transplant in the modern sense – the implantation of organ tissue in order to replace an organ function – was a
Thyroid transplantation became the model for a whole new therapeutic strategy: organ transplantation. After the example of the thyroid, other organs were transplanted in the decades around 1900. Some of these transplants were done in animals for purposes of research, where organ removal and transplantation became a successful strategy of investigating the function of organs. Kocher was awarded his
In 1954, the first ever successful transplant of any organ was done at the Brigham & Women's Hospital in Boston. The surgery was performed by American surgeon Dr. Joseph Murray, who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work. The success of this transplant was mostly due to the family relation between the recipient, a Richard Herrick of Maine, and his donor and identical twin brother Ronald. Richard Herrick was in the Navy and became severely ill with acute renal failure. His brother Ronald donated his kidney to Richard, and Richard lived on for another eight years. Prior to this case, transplant recipients did not survive for more than thirty days. Their close family relation meant there was no need for anti-rejection medications, which was not known until this time, so the case shed light on the cause of rejection and of possible anti-rejection medicine.
Major steps in
Transplant of a single gonad (testis) from a living donor was carried out in early July 1926 in Zaječar, Serbia, by a Russian émigré surgeon Dr. Peter Vasil'evič Kolesnikov. The donor was a convicted murderer, one Ilija Krajan, whose death sentence was commuted to 20 years imprisonment, and he was led to believe that it was done because he had donated his testis to an elderly medical doctor. Both the donor and the receiver survived, but charges were brought in a court of law by the public prosecutor against Dr. Kolesnikov, not for performing the operation, but for lying to the donor.[122]
The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the Ukrainian surgeon Yurii Voronoy in the 1930s;[123][124] but failed due to ischemia. Joseph Murray and J. Hartwell Harrison performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical twins, in 1954, because no immunosuppression was necessary for genetically identical individuals.
In the late 1940s British surgeon Peter Medawar, working for the National Institute for Medical Research, improved the understanding of rejection. Identifying the immune reactions in 1951, Medawar suggested that immunosuppressive drugs could be used. Cortisone had been recently discovered and the more effective azathioprine was identified in 1959, but it was not until the discovery of cyclosporine in 1970 that transplant surgery found a sufficiently powerful immunosuppressive.
There was a successful deceased-donor lung transplant into an emphysema and lung cancer patient in June 1963 by James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi. The patient John Russell survived for eighteen days before dying of kidney failure.[125][126][127][128][129]
Thomas Starzl of Denver attempted a liver transplant in the same year, but he was not successful until 1967.
In the early 1960s and prior to long-term dialysis becoming available, Keith Reemtsma and his colleagues at Tulane University in New Orleans attempted transplants of chimpanzee kidneys into 13 human patients. Most of these patients only lived one to two months. However, in 1964, a 23-year-old woman lived for nine months and even returned to her job as a school teacher until she suddenly collapsed and died. It was assumed that she died from an acute electrolyte disturbance. At autopsy, the kidneys had not been rejected nor was there any other obvious cause of death.[130][131][132] One source states this patient died from pneumonia.[133] Tom Starzl and his team in Colorado used baboon kidneys with six human patients who lived one or two months, but with no longer term survivors.[130][134] Others in the United States and France had limited experiences.[130][135]
The heart was a major prize for transplant surgeons. But over and above rejection issues, the heart deteriorates within minutes of death, so any operation would have to be performed at great speed. The development of the
It was the advent of
As the rising success rate of transplants and modern
Recently, researchers have been looking into means of reducing the general burden of immunosuppression. Common approaches include avoidance of steroids, reduced exposure to calcineurin inhibitors, and other means of weaning drugs based on patient outcome and function. While short-term outcomes appear promising, long-term outcomes are still unknown, and in general, reduced immunosuppression increases the risk of rejection and decreases the risk of infection. The risk of early rejection is increased if corticosteroid immunosuppression are avoided or withdrawn after renal transplantation.[138]
Many other new drugs are under development for transplantation.[139] The emerging field of regenerative medicine promises to solve the problem of organ transplant rejection by regrowing organs in the lab, using person's own cells (stem cells or healthy cells extracted from the donor site).
Timeline of transplants
- 1869: First skin autograft-transplantation by Carl Bunger, who documented the first modern successful Sushrutha.
- 1905: First successful cornea transplant by Eduard Zirm (Czech Republic)
- 1908: First skin allograft-transplantation of skin from a donor to a recipient (Switzerland)
- 1931: First uterus transplantation (Lili Elbe).
- 1950: First successful kidney transplant by Dr. Richard H. Lawler (Chicago, US)[140]
- 1954: First living related kidney transplant (identical twins) (US)[141]
- 1954: Brazil's first successful corneal transplant, the first liver (Brazil)
- 1955: First heart valve allograft into descending aorta (Canada)
- 1963: First successful lung transplant by James D. Hardy with patient living 18 days (US)
- 1964: James D. Hardy attempts heart transplant using chimpanzee heart (US)
- 1964: Human patient lived nine months with chimpanzee kidneys, twelve other human patients only lived one to two months, Keith Reemtsma and team (New Orleans, US)
- 1965: Spain's first successful kidney transplant at Hospital Clinic de Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, by a surgeon team led by Josep Maria Gil-Vernet and Antoni Caralps. The patient, a woman, had a very long life since the procedure.[142]
- 1965: Australia's first successful (living) kidney transplant (Queen Elizabeth Hospital, SA, Australia)
- 1966: First successful pancreas transplant by Richard C. Lillehei and William Kelly (Minnesota, US)
- 1967: First successful liver transplant by Thomas Starzl (Denver, US)
- 1967: First successful heart transplant by Christiaan Barnard (Cape Town, South Africa)
- 1978 Use of ciclosporin in clinical renal transplants[143]
- 1981 Use of monoclonal antibodies to lymphocytes in organ grafting
- 1981: First successful heart/lung transplant by Bruce Reitz (Stanford, US)
- 1983: First successful lung lobe transplant by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada)
- 1984: First successful double organ transplant by Thomas Starzl and Henry T. Bahnson (Pittsburgh, US)
- 1986: First successful double-lung transplant (Ann Harrison) by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada)
- 1990: First successful adult segmental living-related liver transplant by Mehmet Haberal (Ankara, Turkey)
- 1992: First successful combined liver-kidney transplantation from a living-related donor by Mehmet Haberal[citation needed] (Ankara, Turkey)
- 1995: First successful laparoscopic live-donor nephrectomy by Lloyd Ratner and Louis Kavoussi (Baltimore, US)
- 1997: First successful allogeneic vascularized transplantation of a fresh and perfused human knee joint by Gunther O. Hofmann
- 1997: Illinois' first living donor kidney-pancreas transplant and first robotic living donor pancreatectomy in the US. University of Illinois Medical Center
- 1998: First successful live-donor partial pancreas transplantby David Sutherland (Minnesota, US)
- 1998: First successful hand transplant by Dr. Jean-Michel Dubernard (Lyon, France)
- 1998: United States' first adult-to-adult living donor liver transplant University of Illinois Medical Center
- 1999: First successful tissue engineered bladder transplanted by Anthony Atala (Boston Children's Hospital, US)
- 2000: First robotic donor nephrectomy for a living-donor kidney transplant in the world University of Illinois Medical Center
- 2004: First liver and small bowel transplants from same living donor into same recipient in the world University of Illinois Medical Center
- 2005: First successful ovarian transplant by Dr. P. N. Mhatre (Wadia Hospital, Mumbai, India)
- 2005: First successful partial face transplant (France)
- 2005: First robotic hepatectomy in the United States University of Illinois Medical Center
- 2006: Illinois' first paired donation for ABO incompatible kidney transplant University of Illinois Medical Center
- 2006: First Mount Sinai Hospital, New York City, US)
- 2006: First successful human
- 2008: First successful complete full double arm transplant by Edgar Biemer, Christoph Höhnke and Manfred Stangl (Technical University of Munich, Germany)
- 2008: First baby born from transplanted ovary. The transplant was carried out by Dr Sherman Silber at the Infertility Centre of St Louis in Missouri. The donor is her twin sister.[146]
- 2008: First transplant of a human windpipe using a patient's own stem cells, by Paolo Macchiarini (Barcelona, Spain)
- 2008: First successful transplantation of near total area (80%) of , US)
- 2009: Worlds' first robotic kidney transplant in an obese patient University of Illinois Medical Center
- 2010: First full facial transplant by Dr. Joan Pere Barret and team (Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron on 26 July 2010, in Barcelona, Spain)
- 2011: First double leg transplant by Dr. Cavadas and team (Valencia's Hospital, La Fe, Spain)
- 2012: First simultaneous robotic bariatric surgery (sleeve gastrectomy) and kidney transplantation (university of Illinois at Chicago). (1). (2)
- 2012: First Robotic Alloparathyroid transplant. University of Illinois Chicago
- 2013: First successful entire face transplantation as an urgent life-saving surgery at
- 2014: First successful uterine transplant resulting in live birth (Sweden)
- 2014: First successful penis transplant. (South Africa)[148]
- 2014: First neonatal organ transplant. (UK)[149]
- 2018: Skin gun invented, which takes a small amount of healthy skin to be grown in a lab, then is sprayed onto burnt skin. This way skin will heal in days instead of months and will not scar.
- 2019: First drone delivery of a donated kidney, that was then successfully transplanted into a patient. (US)[150]
- 2021: First transplant of both arms and shoulders performed on an Icelandic patient at the Édouard Herriot Hospital. (FR)[151]
- 2022: First successful heart transplant from a pig to a human patient. (US)[152] The recipient later died as the pig's heart was infected with porcine cytomegalovirus.[153]
Society and culture
Success rates
Since 2000, there have been approximately 2,200 lung transplants performed each year worldwide. From 2000 to 2006, the median survival period for lung transplant patients has been 5.5 years.[154]
Comparative costs
In China, a kidney transplant operation runs for around $70,000, liver for $160,000, and heart for $120,000.[85]
Safety
In the United States, tissue transplants are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which sets strict regulations on the safety of the transplants, primarily aimed at the prevention of the spread of communicable disease. Regulations include criteria for donor screening and testing as well as strict regulations on the processing and distribution of tissue grafts. Organ transplants are not regulated by the FDA.[155] It is essential that the HLA complexes of both the donor and recipient be as closely matched as possible to prevent graft rejection.
In November 2007, the CDC reported the first-ever case of HIV and Hepatitis C being simultaneously transferred through an organ transplant. The donor was a 38-year-old male, considered "high-risk" by donation organizations, and his organs transmitted HIV and Hepatitis C to four organ recipients. Experts say that the reason the diseases did not show up on screening tests is probably because they were contracted within three weeks before the donor's death, so antibodies would not have existed in high enough numbers to detect. The crisis has caused many to call for more sensitive screening tests, which could pick up antibodies sooner. Currently, the screens cannot detect the small number of antibodies produced in HIV infections within the last 90 days or Hepatitis C infections within the last 18–21 days before a donation is made.
Nucleic acid testing is now being done by many organ procurement organizations and is able to detect HIV and hepatitis C directly within seven to ten days of exposure to the virus.[156]
Transplant laws
Both developing and developed countries have forged various policies to try to increase the safety and availability of organ transplants to their citizens. However, whilst potential recipients in developing countries may mirror their more developed counterparts in desperation, potential donors in developing countries do not. The
Starting on 1 May 2007, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions in China. Only a few certified hospitals will be allowed to perform organ transplants in order to curb illegal transplants. Harvesting organs without donor's consent was also deemed a crime.[157]
On 27 June 2008, Indonesian,
In an article appearing in the April 2004 issue of Econ Journal Watch,[71] economist Alex Tabarrok examined the impact of direct consent laws on transplant organ availability. Tabarrok found that social pressures resisting the use of transplant organs decreased over time as the opportunity of individual decisions increased. Tabarrok concluded his study suggesting that gradual elimination of organ donation restrictions and move to a free market in organ sales will increase supply of organs and encourage broader social acceptance of organ donation as a practice.
In the United States 24 states have no law preventing discrimination against potential organ recipients based on cognitive ability, including children. A 2008 study found that of the transplant centers surveyed in those states 85 percent considered disability when deciding transplant list and forty four percent would deny an organ transplant to a child with a neurodevelopmental disability.[160][161]
Ethical concerns
The existence and distribution of organ transplantation procedures in
Even within developed countries there is concern that enthusiasm for increasing the supply of organs may trample on respect for the right to life. The question is made even more complicated by the fact that the "irreversibility" criterion for
Artificial organ transplantation
Surgeons, notably Paolo Macchiarini, in Sweden performed the first implantation of a synthetic trachea in July 2011, for a 36-year-old patient who had cancer. Stem cells taken from the patient's hip were treated with growth factors and incubated on a plastic replica of his natural trachea.[163]
According to information uncovered by the Swedish documentary "Dokument Inifrån: Experimenten" (Swedish: "Documents from the Inside: The Experiments") the patient, Andemariam went on to develop an increasingly terrible and eventually bloody cough to dying, incubated, in the hospital. At that point, determined by autopsy, 90% of the synthetic windpipe had come loose. He allegedly made several trips to see Macchiarini for his complications, and at one point had surgery again to have his synthetic windpipe replaced, but Macchiarini was notoriously difficult to get an appointment with. According to the autopsy, the old synthetic windpipe did not appear to have been replaced.[164]
Macchiarini's academic credentials have been called into question[165] and he has recently been accused of alleged research misconduct.[166]
Left ventricular assist devices are often used as a "bridge" to provide additional time while a patient waits for a transplant. For example, former US vice-president Dick Cheney had such a device implanted in 2010 and then 20 months later received a heart transplant in 2012. In year 2012, about 3,000 ventricular assist devices were inserted in the United States, as compared to approximately 2,500 heart transplants. The use of airbags in cars as well as greater use of helmets by bicyclists and skiers has reduced the number of persons with fatal head injuries, which is a common source of donors hearts.[167]
Research
An early-stage medical laboratory and research company, called Organovo, designs and develops functional, three dimensional human tissue for medical research and therapeutic applications. The company utilizes its NovoGen MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting. Organovo anticipates that the bioprinting of human tissues will accelerate the preclinical drug testing and discovery process, enabling treatments to be created more quickly and at lower cost. Additionally, Organovo has long-term expectations that this technology could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation.[168]
A further area of active research is concerned with improving and assessing organs during their preservation. Various techniques have emerged which show great promise, most of which involve perfusing the organ under either hypothermic (4–10 °C) or normothermic (37 °C) conditions. All of these add additional cost and logistical complexity to the organ retrieval, preservation and transplant process, but early results suggest it may well be worth it. Hypothermic perfusion is in clinical use for transplantation of kidneys and liver whilst normothermic perfusion has been used effectively in the heart, lung, liver[169] and, less so, in the kidney.
Another area of research being explored is the use of genetically engineered animals for transplants. Similar to human organ donors, scientists have developed a genetically engineered pig with the aim of reducing rejection to pig organs by human patients. This is currently at the basic research stage, but shows great promise in alleviating the long waiting lists for organ transplants and the number of people in need of transplants outweighs the amount of organs donated. Trials are being done to prevent the pig organ transplant to enter a clinical trial phase until the potential disease transfer from pigs to humans can be safely and satisfactorily managed (Isola & Gordon, 1991).
See also
- Artificial organ
- Beating heart cadaver
- Blood transfusion
- Laboratory-grown organ
- Organ donation
- Regenerative medicine
- Transplant rejection
- Xenotransplantation
References
- PMID 22194426.
- S2CID 6292792.
- ^ See WHO Guiding Principles on human cell, tissue and organ transplantation, Annexed to World Health Organization, 2008. Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Further sources in the Bibliography on Ethics of the WHO Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ See Organ trafficking and transplantation pose new challenges Archived 15 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b Heart of the matter, The Guardian [UK], Simon Garfield, 6 April 2008.
- PMID 11158412.
- PMID 24790696.
- ^ Bassett, Laura (3 November 2016). "How House Republicans Derailed a Scientist Whose Research Could Save Lives". Huffington Post.
- PMID 2231084.
- ^ After rare procedure, woman can hear her heart beat in another, Stanford Medicine News Center, Sara Wykes, 29 March 2016.
- ^ "Mayo Clinic Performs First 'Domino' Transplant in Arizona; Rare Procedure Saves Two Lives at Once, Optimizing Organ Supply". Mayo Clinic. 28 January 2003. Archived from the original on 20 February 2003.
- ^ Blum, Karen (1 August 2003). "Seattle Times Article on domino transplants at Johns Hopkins". Seattletimes.nwsource.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2006. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ "Good Morning America Video on four-way domino 47674874 transplant at Northwestern Memorial Hospital". Abcnews.go.com. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ Turnbull, Barbara (24 February 2012). "Kidney transplant chains shorten the wait for wellness". Healthzone.ca. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ Laurence, Jeremy (27 February 2012). "60 lives linked in kidney donor chain". Northern Star. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ "Groundbreaking 'domino' heart surgery at NYC hospital saves lives of 2 baby girls". 8 August 2023.
- ^ a b c "ABO Incompatible Heart Transplantation in Young Infants". American Society of Transplantation. 30 July 2009. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ PMID 11248154.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 20308266.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 15033856.
- ^ a b "OPTN Policy 3.7 – Allocation of Thoracic Organs". United Network for Organ Sharing. 31 January 2013. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ PMID 23305695.
- PMID 20404257.
- S2CID 26566529.
- ^ PMID 23107062.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "Robotic transplant an option for obese kidney patients | UIC Today". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
- PMID 23437881.
- ^ Cunningham, Aimee (4 December 2018). "In a first, a woman with a uterus transplanted from a deceased donor gives birth". Science News. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
- S2CID 54446401.
- ^ Connor, Steve (24 September 1999). "Doctors plan first testicle transplant". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ PMID 36863368.
- S2CID 257386888.
- S2CID 258662039.
- ^ S2CID 260200746.
- S2CID 139101919.
- ^ "Regenerative medicine - Latest research and news | Nature". www.nature.com. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
- PMID 20832517.
- PMID 16998364. (subscription required for full access)
- S2CID 7891692.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Ogilvie, Megan (7 March 2021). "An Ontario man chose a medically assisted death at home. In a world first, he was able to donate his lungs". Toronto Star. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
- ^ Trusting the organ transplant system, Chicago Tribune, Cory Franklin, 5 March 2003. " . . While other physicians pledge to do their utmost to help the patient in front of them, transplant surgeons must pursue the optimal use of a scarce resource, . . "
- ^ "Saved By His Daughter's Heart. Man Dying From Heart Disease Gets Gift From Late Daughter". CBS Broadcasting Inc. 20 August 2004. Archived from the original on 22 February 2006. Retrieved 10 October 2006.
- People Magazine. 42 (25). Retrieved 21 October 2012.
- PMID 9180096.
- ISBN 978-0-521-65164-6– via Google Books.
- PMID 3521001.
- ^ "New England Program for Kidney Exchange". Archived from the original on 14 June 2006.
- PMID 4918735.
- ^ "The Johns Hopkins Hospital | Johns Hopkins Medicine in Baltimore, MD". Hopkinshospital.org. Johns Hopkins Medicine. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ Eric Vohr (16 February 2009). "Johns Hopkins Leads First 12-Patient, Multicenter "Domino Donor" Kidney Transplant". Johns Hopkins Medicine. Baltimore, Maryland. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ Amy Ellis Nutt/The Star-Ledger (5 June 2009). "Kidney donations connect strangers in "Chain of Life" forged by transplants". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
- ^ "First 16-patient, Multicenter 'Domino Donor' Kidney Transplant". Science Daily. 11 July 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ Val Willingham (14 December 2009). "Massive transplant effort pairs 13 kidneys to 13 patients". CNN. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-19-960786-0.
- ^ "Would you give your kidney to a stranger?". CNN. 5 June 2006. Retrieved 2 May 2008.
- ^ Plibersek, Tanya (7 April 2013). "Supporting Paid Leave for Living Organ Donors". Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ Live donors to get financial support, Rashida Yosufzai, AAP, 7 April 2013
- S2CID 38062784.
- S2CID 35859176.
- ^ The Meat Market Archived 11 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, The Wall Street Journal, 8 January 2010.
- ^ Martinez, Edecio (27 July 2009). "Black Market Kidneys, $160,000 a Pop". CBS News. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ a b "Psst, wanna buy a kidney?". Organ transplants. The Economist Newspaper Limited 2011. 16 November 2006. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- .
- ^ S2CID 146238746.
- ^ Schall, John A. (May 2008). "A New Outlook on Compensated Kidney Donations". RENALIFE. American Association of Kidney Patients. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ Gary S. Becker; Julio Jorge Elías. "Introducing Incentives in the Market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- ^ William Saletan (14 April 2007). "Shopped Liver: The worldwide market in human organs". Salon. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- S2CID 144121833.
- .
- ^ a b Alexander Tabarrok (April 2004). "How to Get Real About Organs" (PDF). 1 (1). Econ Journal Watch: 11–18. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - PMID 17699338.
- PMID 17347232.
- ^ "Organ transplants: Psst, wanna buy a kidney?". The Economist. 16 November 2006. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ David Holcberg (2005). "To Save Lives, Legalize Trade in Organs". Aynrand.org. The Ayn Rand Center for Individual Rights. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
- ^ Alexander G. Higgins (30 March 2007). "WHO says organ demand outstrips supply". USA Today. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ R. Bhagwan Singh (16 January 2007). "Indian police probe kidney sales by tsunami victims". Reuters. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
- PMID 12350195.
- ^ "Cyprus Clinic Accused of Human Egg Harvesting". Pulitzer Center. 17 August 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ Scott Carney (17 August 2010). "Untold Stories: The Cyprus Scramble". Archived from the original on 18 August 2010. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
- ^ Carney, Scott (1 September 2010). "Unpacking the Global Human Egg Trade | Human Eggs for Sale". Fast Company. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ "WMA Council Resolution on Organ Donation in China". World Medical Association. May 2006. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010.
- ^ Kirchgaessner, Stephanie (8 February 2017). "China may still be using executed prisoners' organs, official admits". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
- ^ a b 世界日報──大陸新聞 [World Journal – mainland news] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 9 October 2007.
- ^ a b c d David Kilgour, David Matas (6 July 2006, revised 31 January 2007) An Independent Investigation into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China Archived 4 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine (free in 22 languages) organharvestinvestigation.net
- ^ Jay Nordlinger (25 August 2014) "Face The Slaughter: The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting, and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem, by Ethan Gutmann" Archived 23 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, National Review
- ^ Ethan Gutmann (August 2014) The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem Archived 2 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine "Average number of Falun Gong in Laogai System at any given time" Low estimate 450,000, High estimate 1,000,000 p. 320. "Best estimate of Falun Gong harvested 2000 to 2008" 65,000 p. 322.
- ^ Kilgour, David. "Blood Harvest: The Slaughter" (PDF). End Organ Pillaging: 428.
- ^ Samuels, Gabriel (29 June 2016). "China kills millions of innocent meditators for their organs, report finds". The Independent. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022.
- ^ Hospitals ban Chinese surgeon training Archived 25 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Sydney Morning Herald. 5 December 2006
- ^ Market Wired (8 May 2008) China's Organ Harvesting Questioned Again by UN Special Rapporteurs: FalunHR Reports Archived 25 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 26 October 2014
- ^ Anuj Chopra, Chronicle Foreign Service (9 February 2008). "Organ-transplant black market thrives in India". SFGate. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ Vanessa Hua (17 April 2006). "Patients seeking transplants turn to China / Rights activists fear organs are taken from executed prisoners". SFGate. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ Coonan, Clifford (21 March 2006). "Japan's rich buy organs from executed Chinese prisoners". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- PMID 31848484.
- PMID 30723071.
- ^ PMID 25378744.
- ^ "The Transplantation Society". Archived from the original on 9 November 2004.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Deceased Organ Donors, Annual Rate (p. m. p.) Europe" (PDF). Council of Europe. p. 4.
- already supports our claim. This link is "dead cold" – archive.is, WayBack, WebCite, etc.)
- ^ "La ONT estima en 94.500 los transplantes de órganos solidos realizados en 2006 en todo el mundo" [The ONT estimated 94,500 solid organ transplants performed in 2006 worldwide] (PDF) (in Spanish). Transplant Commission of the Council of Europe. 28 August 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 September 2011.
- ^ "España alcanza un récord histórico de trasplantes en 2011 / Noticias / SINC" [Spain achieved a new record of transplants in 2011 / News / SINC]. Agenciasinc.es (in Spanish). 10 January 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- ^ "Prime Minister Organ Donation Compulsion Will Affect Muslims". Ramadhan Foundation. 13 January 2008. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- ^ "Islam and Organ Donation". Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
These institutes all call upon Muslims to donate organs for transplantation:the Shariah Academy of the Organisation of Islamic Conference (representing all Muslim countries), the Grand Ulema Council of Saudi Arabia, the Iranian Religious Authority, the Al-Azhar Academy of Egypt
- ^ "National Organ Transplant Unit". Ministry of Health, Singapore. Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ "The Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act (MTERA)". Ministry of Health, Singapore. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ "Human Organ Transplant Act". Ministry of Health, Singapore. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ "About Live On". Live On. Ministry of Health, Singapore. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- S2CID 40294107. Archived from the original(PDF) on 17 July 2011.
- PMID 17339305. Archived from the originalon 1 December 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-5840-0. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
- ^ "China fury at organ snatching 'lies'". BBC News. 28 June 2001. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
- ^ "Illegal Human Organ Trade from Executed Prisoners in China". American University Washington D.C. Archived from the original on 19 April 2001. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
- ^ "The Bellagio Task Force Report on Transplantation, Bodily Integrity, and the International Traffic in Organs". Icrc.org. International Committee of the Red Cross. Archived from the original on 30 December 2005. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the Halachic Organ Donor (HOD) Society". Hods.org. 14 March 2007. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- PMID 9777814.
- ^ "2017 was a record year for organ donations". MSN. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
- ^ saramoriarty (9 September 2022). "U.S. reaches historic milestone of 1 million transplants". UNOS. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
- PMID 18555483.
- ^ Jacobus de Voragine (1275). The Golden Ledent or Lives of the Saints. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
- ^ a b Schlich, Thomas (2010) [originally published 1880–1930]. The Origins of Organ Transplantation: Surgery and Laboratory Science. University of Rochester Press.
- ISSN 0350-2899.
- .
- S2CID 12087935.
- PMID 14061414.
- PMID 14061420.
- ^ Anesthesia for Transplant Surgery, Jayashree Sood, Vijay Vohra, New Delhi, London, Panama City, Philadelphia: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishing, 2014, page 4, "Lung Transplant."
- ^ Second Wind: Oral Histories of Lung Transplant Survivors, Mary Jo Festle, Palgrave MacMillan, 2012.
- ^ Medical Center marks 50th anniversary of momentous surgical achievement[permanent dead link], University of Mississippi Medical Center, Bruce Coleman, 13 May 2013. " ... Rowland Medical Library ... restored film in canister No. 97 ... footage of Hardy's initial lung transplant follows – in vivid color. . "
- ^ PMID 22275786. '[Regarding Hardy's 1964 transplant of chimpanzee heart into comatose patient, with a close relative signing the consent form] . . made no mention of the fact that an animal heart might be used for the procedure. Such was the medicolegal situation at that time that this "informed" consent was not considered in any way inadequate. . . '
- PMID 14206847.
- ^ Xenotransplantation: The Transplantation of Organs and Tissues Between Species edited and with chapters by David K.C. Cooper, Ejvind Kemp, Keith Reemtsma, and D.J.G. White; Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991. Please see Case 2 on page 19 for discussion of the 1964 case of the 23-year-old school teacher who lived nine months after receiving a transplant of chimpanzee kidneys, which was written by her surgeon Keith Reemtsma.
- ^ Kidney Transplantation, Bioengineering, and Regeneration: Kidney Transplantation in the Regenerative Medicine Era, edited by Giuseppe Orlando, Giuseppe Remuzzi, David F. Williams, "Ch. 84.5 Xenotransplantation" by Kazuhiko Yamada, Masayuki Tasaki, Adam Griesemar, Jigesh Shah, London: Academic Press, 2017.
- PMID 14224657.
- PMID 9038490.
- doi:10.1001/jama.1964.03060390034008.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Every Second Counts: The Race to Transplant the First Human Heart, Donald McRae, New York: Penguin (Berkley/Putnam), 2006, see Chapter 7 "Mississippi Gambling," pages 122 through 127.
- PMID 27546100.
- ^ New Drugs in Transplantation, EBMT Meeting, France, March 2007 C. Paillet, Pharmacist, Pharm D. C. Renzullo, Pharmacist, Pharm D. Edouard Herriot Hospital, Lyon, France
- ^ "R.H. Lawler, Pioneer of Kidney Transplants". The New York Times. 27 July 1982. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ "A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: First successful kidney transplant performed". PBS. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ "Transplantation: Catalan pioneers". Retrieved 10 December 2022.
- ^ Roy Calne. Essay History of transplantation. Lancet 2006; 368: S51–S52
- ^ Sample, Ian (18 September 2006). "Man rejects first penis transplant". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- PMID 16930814.
- ^ Randerson, James; Correspondent, Science (9 November 2008). "Woman to give birth after first ovary transplant pregnancy". The Guardian.
- ^ "Polish man gets quick face transplant after injury". Yahoo! News. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
- ^ Joseph Netto (13 March 2015). "Doctors claim first successful penis transplant". CNN.
- ^ Kat Lay (20 January 2015). "Newborn baby is youngest organ donor in Britain". The Times. U.K.
- ^ Susan Scutti (1 May 2019). "First drone delivery of a donated kidney ends with successful transplant". CNN. U.S.
- ^ Sciences et Avenir with AFP (15 January 2021). "Double greffe des bras et des épaules à Lyon, une première mondiale". Sciences et Avenir. France.
- ^ "University of Maryland School of Medicine Faculty Scientists and Clinicians Perform Historic First Successful Transplant of Porcine Heart into Adult Human with End-Stage Heart Disease". University of Maryland Medical Center. U.S. 10 January 2022.
- ^ Maya Yang (6 May 2022). "Man who received landmark pig heart transplant died of pig virus, surgeon says". The Guardian.
- PMID 29404127.
- ^ Research, Center for Biologics Evaluation and. "Questions about Tissues – Tissue and Tissue Product Questions and Answers". www.fda.gov. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
- PMID 24476053.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "China issues new rules on organs". BBC. 7 April 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ^ "Two Indonesians plead guilty in Singapore midorgan trading case". Abs-Cbn Interactive. Agence France-Presse. 28 June 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
- ^ Lee Hui Chieh; Sujin Thomas (28 June 2008). "CK Tang boss quizzed by police". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 4 July 2008.
- ^ Stetler, Pepper (14 June 2021). "It's Perfectly Legal in Many States to Deny People With Down Syndrome Organ Transplants". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
- S2CID 19868624.
- PMID 16356234.
- ^ "Cancer Patient Gets First Totally Artificial Windpipe". NPR. 8 July 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
- ^ "Dokument inifrån: Experimenten – Avsnitt 2: Varje kirurg har sin kyrkogård". Archived from the original on 9 September 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ Ciralsky, Adam (31 January 2016). "The Celebrity Surgeon Who Used Love, Money, and the Pope to Scam an NBC News Producer". Vanity Fair. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
- ^ "Karolinskas "superkirurg" utreds och granskas". 13 January 2016. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ Cheney, helped for many months by a mechanical heart, is "terrific" after transplant, Washington Post, David Brown and Lena H. Sun, 25 March 2012.
- ^ "3D Human Tissues for Medical Research & Therapeutics". Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- S2CID 4990879.
- Isola, L. M., & Gordon, J. W. (1991). Transgenic animals: a new era in developmental biology and medicine. Biotechnology (Reading, Mass.), 16, 3–20.
Further reading
- World Health Organization (2008). Human organ and tissue transplantation (PDF). Geneva / New York: WHO. p. 13. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
External links
- Organ Transplant survival rates from the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients
- The short film A Science of Miracles (2009) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- "Overcoming the Rejection Factor: MUSC's First Organ Transplant" online exhibit at Waring Historical Library