Orientalism
In art history, literature and cultural studies, orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or "Orient") by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle East,[1] was one of the many specialties of 19th-century academic art, and Western literature was influenced by a similar interest in Oriental themes.
Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term 'Orientalism' to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and North African societies. In Said's analysis, 'the West' essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced in the service of imperial power. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.[2] This allows 'Western imagination' to see 'Eastern' cultures and people as both alluring and a threat to Western civilization.[3]
Background
Etymology
Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident; the East and the West, respectively.[4][5] The word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient. The root word oriēns, from the Latin Oriēns, has synonymous denotations: The eastern part of the world; the sky whence comes the sun; the east; the rising sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography.
In the "
Art
In
The formation of the French Orientalist Painters Society changed the consciousness of practitioners towards the end of the 19th century, since artists could now see themselves as part of a distinct art movement.[10] As an art movement, Orientalist painting is generally treated as one of the many branches of 19th-century academic art; however, many different styles of Orientalist art were in evidence. Art historians tend to identify two broad types of Orientalist artist: the realists who carefully painted what they observed and those who imagined Orientalist scenes without ever leaving the studio.[11] French painters such as Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) are widely regarded as the leading luminaries of the Orientalist movement.[12]
Oriental studies
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the term Orientalist identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world. Among such scholars were officials of the East India Company, who said that the Arab culture, the Indian culture, and the Islamic cultures should be studied as equal to the cultures of Europe.[16] Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones, whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology. Company rule in India favored Orientalism as a technique for developing and maintaining positive relations with the Indians—until the 1820s, when the influence of "anglicists" such as Thomas Babington Macaulay and John Stuart Mill led to the promotion of a Western-style education.[17]
Additionally,
Critical studies
Edward Said
In his book
In the academy, the book Orientalism (1978) became a foundational text of
There is also a critical trend within the
In European architecture and design
The
Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.
Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, c. 1753–1770. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie". Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent Great Pagoda designed by William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Frederic Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.
After 1860,
-
Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie - Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755–1764[29]
-
Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: Chinese Pavilion, Ekerö Municipality, Sweden, by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz, 1763–1769[30]
-
Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: Pagod, based on Asian figures of Budai by Johann Joachim Kändler, c.1765, hard paste porcelain, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[31]
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Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival: Table, 1775–1780, wood, carved, painted, and partly gilded, and black granite top not original to table, Metropolitan Museum of Art
-
Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: Chinese Tower in the Englischer Garten, Munich, Germany, by Johann Baptist Lechner, 1789–1790, reconstructed in 1952
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Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival: Portico of the Hôtel Beauharnais, Paris, L.E.N. Bataille, c.1804[34]
-
Islamic inspiration: Vase, c.1867, porcelain, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Japanese inspiration/Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
-
Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival: Interior of the Temple maçonnique des Amis philanthropes, Brussels, Belgium, 1877–1879, by Adolphe Samyn, with the help of Ernest Hendrickx, J. De Blois and Alban Chambon
-
Islamic inspiration: Vase Espoir, by Émile Gallé, 1889, acid-etched glass, with enamelled and gilt decoration, Musée de l'École de Nancy, Nancy, France
-
Islamic inspiration: Turkish Pavilion at the 1900 Paris Exposition, Paris, by Émile Dubuisson, c.1900[35]
-
Japanese inspiration: Mascaron of the Praha hlavní nádraží, Prague, the Czech Republic, designed by Josef Fanta, 1901–1909
-
Islamic inspiration: Ceiling in the Filitti House (Calea Dorobanților no. 18), Bucharest, by Ernest Doneaus, c.1910[36]
-
Thai inspiration - Monumental corbels of a Société financière française et coloniale headquarter (Rue des Mathurins no. 53), Paris, unknown architect, c.1910
-
, 1911
-
Islamic inspiration: Fancy dress costume, by Paul Poiret, 1911, metal, silk, cotton, Metropolitan Museum of Art
-
Japanese inspiration/Japonisme: Cover ofchromolithograph, multiple locations[37]
Orientalist art
Orientalist tendencies in Western art have a long history. Oriental scenes may be found in medieval and Renaissance art, and Islamic art has itself had a profound and formative influence on Western artistic output. Oriental subject matter further proliferated in the 19th century, in step with Western colonialism in Africa and Asia.
Pre-19th century
Depictions of Islamic "
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish attire for much of the time when he was back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travelers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travelers wearing what look very like togas. Many travelers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour.[40] The growing French interest in exotic Oriental luxury and lack of liberty in the 18th century to some extent reflected a pointed analogy with France's own absolute monarchy.[41] Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.
French Orientalism
French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon's ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798–1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Antoine-Jean Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson's La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l'Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.[42]
When Ingres, the director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a
In many of these works, artists portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Arab, Jewish, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode";[46] (Gallery, below)
Orientalist sculptors include Charles Cordier.
British Orientalism
Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for nude women. The leading British
William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most European visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancé's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as a Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.[49] This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.
When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the
Other artists concentrated on
Russian Orientalism
Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of
"
German Orientalism
Edward Said originally wrote that Germany did not have a politically motivated Orientalism because its colonial empire did not expand in the same areas as France and Britain. Said later stated that Germany "had in common with Anglo-French and later American Orientalism [...] a kind of intellectual authority over the Orient". However, Said also wrote that "there was nothing in Germany to correspond to the Anglo-French presence in India, the Levant, North Africa. Moreover, the German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a classical, Orient: it was made the subject of lyrics, fantasies, and even novels, but it was never actual."[57] According to Suzanne L. Marchand, German scholars were the "pace-setters" in oriental studies.[58] Robert Irwin wrote that "until the outbreak of the Second World War, German dominance of Orientalism was practically unchallenged."[59]
Elsewhere
The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter was in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers.[63]
Pop culture
Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his four long "Turkish tales" in poetry, is one of the most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of Romanticism. Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia.[64]
Irish Orientalism had a particular character, drawing on various beliefs about early historical links between Ireland and the East, few of which are now regarded as historically correct. The mythical Milesians are one example of this. The Irish were also conscious of the views of other nations seeing them as comparably backward to the East, and Europe's "backyard Orient."[65]
In music
In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the
Nonetheless, Taruskin characterized Orientalism in Romantic Russian music as having melodies "full of close little ornaments and melismas",
In the United Kingdom, Gustav Holst composed Beni Mora evoking a languid, heady Arabian atmosphere.
Orientalism, in a more camp fashion also found its way into exotica music in the late 1950s, especially the works of Les Baxter, for example, his composition "City of Veils".
In literature
The Romantic movement in literature began in 1785 and ended around 1830. The term Romantic references the ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the culture and objects of the East began to have a profound effect on Europe. Extensive traveling by artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales back to the West creating a great interest in all things "foreign". Romantic Orientalism incorporates African and Asian geographic locations, well-known colonial and "native" personalities, folklore, and philosophies to create a literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature as a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory.[72]
In his novel
In film
Said argues that the continuity of Orientalism into the present can be found in influential images, particularly through the Cinema of the United States, as the West has now grown to include the United States.[73] Many blockbuster feature films, such as the Indiana Jones series, The Mummy films, and Disney's Aladdin film series demonstrate the imagined geographies of the East.[73] The films usually portray the lead heroic characters as being from the Western world, while the villains often come from the East.[73] The representation of the Orient has continued in film, although this representation does not necessarily have any truth to it.
In
Kimiko Akita, in Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in 'Memoirs of a Geisha', argues that Memoirs of a Geisha (2005) contains orientalist tropes and deep "cultural misrepresentations". She states that Memoirs of a Geisha "reinforces the idea of Japanese culture and geisha as exotic, backward, irrational, dirty, profane, promiscuous, bizarre, and enigmatic."[75]
In dance
During the Romantic period of the 19th century, ballet developed a preoccupation with the exotic. This exoticism ranged from ballets set in Scotland to those based on ethereal creatures.[76] By the later part of the century, ballets were capturing the presumed essence of the mysterious East. These ballets often included sexual themes and tended to be based on assumptions of people rather than on concrete facts. Orientalism is apparent in numerous ballets.
The Orient motivated several major ballets, which have survived since the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Le Corsaire premiered in 1856 at the Paris Opera, with choreography by Joseph Mazilier.[77] Marius Petipa re-choreographed the ballet for the Maryinsky Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1899.[77] Its complex storyline, loosely based on Lord Byron's poem,[78] takes place in Turkey and focuses on a love story between a pirate and a beautiful slave girl. Scenes include a bazaar where women are sold to men as slaves, and the Pasha's Palace, which features his harem of wives.[77] In 1877, Marius Petipa choreographed La Bayadère, the love story of an Indian temple dancer and Indian warrior. This ballet was based on Kalidasa's play Sakuntala.[78] La Bayadere used vaguely Indian costuming, and incorporated Indian inspired hand gestures into classical ballet. In addition, it included a 'Hindu Dance,' motivated by Kathak, an Indian dance form.[78] Another ballet, Sheherazade, choreographed by Michel Fokine in 1910 to music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, is a story involving a shah's wife and her illicit relations with a Golden Slave, originally played by Vaslav Nijinsky.[78] The ballet's controversial fixation on sex includes an orgy in an oriental harem. When the shah discovers the actions of his numerous wives and their lovers, he orders the deaths of those involved.[78] Sheherazade was loosely based on folktales of questionable authenticity.
Several lesser-known ballets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century also show their Orientalism. For instance, in Petipa's The Pharaoh's Daughter (1862), an Englishman imagines himself, in an opium-induced dream, as an Egyptian boy who wins the love of the Pharaoh's daughter, Aspicia.[78] Aspicia's costume consisted of 'Egyptian' décor on a tutu.[78] Another ballet, Hippolyte Monplaisir's Brahma, which premiered in 1868 in La Scala, Italy,[79] is a story that involves romantic relations between a slave girl and Brahma, the Hindu god, when he visits earth.[78] In addition, in 1909, Serge Diagilev included Cléopâtre in the Ballets Russes' repertory. With its theme of sex, this revision of Fokine's Une Nuit d'Egypte combined the "exoticism and grandeur" that audiences of this time craved.[78]
As one of the pioneers of modern dance in America,
While Orientalism in dance climaxed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is still present in modern times. For instance, major ballet companies regularly perform Le Corsaire, La Bayadere, and Sheherazade. Furthermore, Orientalism is also found within newer versions of ballets. In versions of The Nutcracker, such as the 2010 American Ballet Theatre production, the Chinese dance uses an arm position with the arms bent at a ninety-degree angle and the index fingers pointed upwards, while the Arabian dance uses two dimensional bent arm movements. Inspired by ballets of the past, stereotypical 'Oriental' movements and arm positions have developed and remain.
In sport
The
The first Qatari to publicly
Religion
Part of a series on |
Spirituality |
---|
Outline |
Influences |
Research |
An exchange of Western and Eastern ideas about spirituality developed as the West traded with and established colonies in Asia.[94] The first Western translation of a Sanskrit text appeared in 1785,[95] marking the growing interest in Indian culture and languages.[96] Translations of the Upanishads, which Arthur Schopenhauer called "the consolation of my life", first appeared in 1801 and 1802.[97][note 2] Early translations also appeared in other European languages.[99] 19th-century transcendentalism was influenced by Asian spirituality, prompting Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) to pioneer the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.[100]
A major force in the mutual influence of Eastern and Western
The
Another major influence was
Islam
With the spread of Eastern religious and cultural ideals towards the West, came in with studies and certain illustrations that depicts certain regions and religions under the Western perspective. Many the aspects or views are often turned into the ideas that the West have adopted onto those cultural and religious ideals. One of the more adopted views can be depicted through Western context on Islam and the Middle East. Under the adopted view of Islam under the Western context, Orientalism falls under the category of the Western perspective of thinking that shifts through social constructs that refers towards representations of the religion or culture in a subjective view point.[113] The concept of Orientalism dates back to precolonial eras, as the main European powers acquired and perceived of territory, resources, knowledge, and control of the regions in the East.[113] The term Orientalism, depicts further into the historical context of antagonism and misrepresentation into the tendencies of a growing layer of Western inclusion and influence on foreign culture and ideals.[114]
In the religious perspective under Islam, the term Orientalism applies in similar meaning as the outlook from the Western perspective, mainly in the eyes of the Christian majority.[114] The main contributor of the depiction of Oriental perspectives or illustrations on Islam and other Middle Eastern cultures derives from the imperial and colonial influences and powers that attribute to formation of multiple fields of geographical, political, educational, and scientific elements.[114] The combination of these different genres reveal significant division among people of those cultures and reinforces the ideals set from the Western perspective.[114] With Islam, historically scientific discoveries, research, inventions, or ideas that were presented before and contributed to many other European breakthroughs are not affiliated with the previous Islamic scientists.[114] From the exclusion of past contributions and initial works further lead to narrative of the concept of Orientalism with the passing of time generated a history and directive of presence within region and religion that historically influences the image of the East.[113]
Through the recent years, Orientalism has been influenced and shifted to altering representations of various forms that all derive from the same meaning.[113] From the nineteenth century, among the Western perspectives on Orientalism, differed as the split of American and European Orientalism viewed different illustrations.[113] With mainstream media and popular production reveal many depictions of Oriental cultures and Islamic references to the current event of radicalization for Non-western cultures.[113] With references and mainstream media often utilized to contribute to an extended agenda under the construct judgement of alternate motives.[113] The approach with the generalization of the term Orientalism was embedded with under beginning of colonialism as the root of the main complexity of within modern societies perspectives of foreign cultures.[114] As mainstream media depicts illustrations to utilize many instances of discourse and on certain regions mainly among the conflict within regions in the Middle East and Africa.[114] With agenda of influencing views on non-western societies to be deemed non-compatible with differing ideologies and cultures, the elements that present diversion among Eastern societies and aspects.[114]
Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East
The concept of Orientalism has been adopted by scholars in East-Central and Eastern Europe, among them Maria Todorova, Attila Melegh, Tomasz Zarycki, and Dariusz Skórczewski[115] as an analytical tool for exploring the images of East-Central and Eastern European societies in cultural discourses of the West in the 19th century and during the Soviet domination.
The term "re-orientalism" was used by Lisa Lau and Ana Cristina Mendes[116][117] to refer to how Eastern self-representation is based on western referential points:[118]
Re-Orientalism differs from Orientalism in its manner of and reasons for referencing the West: while challenging the metanarratives of Orientalism, re-Orientalism sets up alternative metanarratives of its own in order to articulate eastern identities, simultaneously deconstructing and reinforcing Orientalism.
Occidentalism
The term occidentalism is often used to refer to negative views of the Western world found in Eastern societies, and is founded on the sense of nationalism that spread in reaction to colonialism[119] (see Pan-Asianism). Edward Said has been accused of Occidentalizing the west in his critique of Orientalism; of falsely characterizing the West in the same way that he states that Western scholars have falsely characterized the East.[120] According to this viewpoint, Said essentialized the West by creating a homogenous image of the area. Currently, the West consists not only of Europe, but also the United States and Canada, which have become more influential over the years.[120]
Eighteenth century Qing emperors in China had a material fascination with Occidenterie, or objects inspired by Western art and architecture (an analogue to Europe's chinoiserie or material imitation of Chinese artistic traditions). Although the phenomenon was strongly associated with the emperor's court and the architecture project of Xiyang Lou, nonetheless, a wide spectrum of China's social classes had some access to Occidenterie objects as they were domestically produced.[121]
Othering
The action of
Said's Orientalism has been instrumental to the critical turn in the humanities and the social sciences concerning the appreciation of the political weight of "representing" as a form of powering over Others. However, as recent anthropological enquiries suggest, Orientalism has also been at times simplistically applied to merely equate Othering with the attribution of negative qualities.[124] A study of the sphere of Othering in contexts, seemingly removed from Said's original focus, such as the relationship between Greece and Germany during the
See also
- Allosemitism
- Arabist
- Black orientalism
- Borealism
- Chinoiserie
- Cultural appropriation
- Dahesh Museum
- Ethnocentrism
- Exoticism
- Hebraist
- Hellenocentrism
- Indomania
- Japonisme
- La belle juive
- List of artistic works with Orientalist influences
- List of Orientalist artists
- Negrophilia
- Neo-orientalism
- Noble savage
- Objectification
- Othering
- Outsider art
- Pizza effect
- Primitivism
- Racial fetishism
- Romantic racism
- Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam
- Stereotypes
- Turquerie
- Westsplaining
- World music
- Xenocentrism
Notes
- 2018 World Cup respectively, and who both have arguably worse human rights records.[88] Moreover, it added that “Western criticism” failed to “distinguish between truly repugnant regimes and merely flawed ones”, and that many “indignant pundits” simply sounded as if they did “not like Muslims or rich people”.[88]
- ^ Schopenhauer also called his poodle "Atman".[98]
- Ascended Master Teachings
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- ^ Latin Oriens, Oxford English Dictionary. p. 000.
- Said, Edward. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979. p. 364.
- ^ Said, Edward. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979: 357
- ^ Tromans, 20
- ^ Harding, 74
- ^ Tromans, 19
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- ^ Holloway (2006), pp. 1–2. "The Orientalism espoused by Warren Hastings, William Jones and the early East India Company sought to maintain British domination over the Indian subcontinent through patronage of Hindu and Muslim languages and institutions, rather than through their eclipse by English speech and aggressive European acculturation."
- ^ "Hebraists, Christian". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
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- ^ Tromans, 135–136
- ^ Tromans, 43
- ^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22–32, 80–85, 130–135, and see index
- ^ Tromans, 102–125, covers landscape
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- ^ a b c "Le Corsaire". ABT. Ballet Theatre Foundation, Inc. Archived from the original on 2003-05-06. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
- ^ ISBN 9780500202197.
- ^ Jowitt, Deborah. Time and the Dancing Image. p. 55.
- ^ from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- ^ from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
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- ^ a b Miller, Nick (26 November 2022). "What does the World Cup mean to the Middle East and Arab world?". The Athletic. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
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- ^ Griffin, Thomas Ross (2017). "Football in the Hands of the Other: Qatar's World Cup in the British Broadsheet Press". Arab World Geographer. 20 (2): 170–182.
- ^ a b c "In defence of Qatar's hosting of the World Cup". The Economist. 19 November 2022. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
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- ^ a b c d e McMahan 2008.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 176.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 177.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 177-178.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 178.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 183-184.
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- ^ Renard 2010, p. 185-188.
- ^ a b Sinari 2000.
- ^ Lavoie 2012.
- ^ a b Gilchrist 1996, p. 32.
- ^ Johnson 1994, p. 107.
- ^ McMahan 2008, p. 98.
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- ^ Fields 1992, p. 83-118.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 189-193.
- ^ a b Michaelson 2009, p. 79-81.
- ^ Rambachan 1994.
- ^ Rambachan 1994, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kerboua, Salim (2016). "From Orientalism to Neo-Orientalism: Early and Contemporary Constructions of Islam and the Muslim World". Intellectual Discourse. 24: 7–34 – via ProQuest.
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Sources
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- Gombrich, Richard (1996), Theravada Buddhism. A Social History From Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, Routledge
- Holloway, Steven W., ed. (2006). Orientalism, Assyriology and the Bible. Hebrew Bible Monographs, 10. Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-905048-37-3
- Johnson, K. Paul (1994), The masters revealed: Madam Blavatsky and the myth of the Great White Lodge, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2063-8
- Jones, Denna, ed. (2014), Architecture The Whole Story, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-29148-1
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- Lavoie, Jeffrey D. (2012), The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement, Universal-Publishers
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- McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276
- Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online, accessed April 11, 2011
- Michaelson, Jay (2009), Everything Is God: The Radical Path of Nondual Judaism, Shambhala
- Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nineteenth-century visual culture reader,google books, a reaction to Rosenthal's exhibition and book.
- Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press
- Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip
- ISBN 0-394-74067-X).
- Sinari, Ramakant (2000), Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta", Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations
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- ISBN 0-691-01156-7.
- Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, 2008, ISBN 978-1-85437-733-3
Further reading
Art
- Alazard, Jean. L'Orient et la peinture française.
- Behdad, Ali. 2013. Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation. Getty Publications. 224 pages.
- Benjamin, Roger. 2003. Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930. University of California Press.
- Peltre, Christine. 1998. Orientalism in Art. New York: ISBN 0-7892-0459-2.
- Rosenthal, Donald A. 1982. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, NY: Memorial Art Gallery, University of Rochester.
- Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. 1984. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East (exhibition catalogue). London: Royal Academy of Arts.
Literature
- Balagangadhara, S. N. 2012. Reconceptualizing India studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 1842772198
- Bitar, Amer (2020). Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications. ISBN 9783030573973.
- Clarke, J. J. 1997. "Oriental Enlightenment". London: Routledge.
- Chatterjee, Indrani. 1999. "Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India". Oxford University Press.
- Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. "ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age". University of California Press.
- .
- Inden, Ronald. 2000. "Imagining India". Indiana University Press.
- ISBN 0-7139-9415-0.
- Isin, Engin, ed. 2015. Citizenship After Orientalism: Transforming Political Theory. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
- ISBN 0-04-440911-7.
- ISBN 9780745323183
- King, Richard. 1999. "Orientalism and Religion". Routledge.
- Kontje, Todd. 2004. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: ISBN 0-472-11392-5.
- Lach, Donald, and Edwin Van Kley. 1993. "Asia in the Making of Europe. Volume III". University of Chicago Press.
- ISBN 9781565843592.
- ISBN 1-86064-889-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6.
- ISBN 0-582-42386-4.
- MacKenzie, John. 1995. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: ISBN 0-7190-4578-9.
- McEvilley, Thomas. 2002. "The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies". New York: Allworth Press.
- Murti, Kamakshi P. 2001. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: ISBN 0-313-30857-8.
- Oueijan, Naji. 1996. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers.
- Skórczewski, Dariusz. 2020. Polish Literature and National Identity: A Postcolonial Perspective. Rochester: ISBN 9781580469784.
- Steiner, Evgeny, ed. 2012. Orientalism/Occidentalism: Languages of Cultures vs. Languages of Description. Moscow: Sovpadenie. [English & Russian]. ISBN 978-5-903060-75-7.
- [Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Orientalism., Murder of History.. Facts behind the Gossips and Realities. (October 20, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4608350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4608350]