Orientalism (book)
LC Class | DS12 .S24 1979 |
Orientalism is a 1978 book by
According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the
Through the critical application of
As a public intellectual, Edward Said debated historians and scholars of area studies, notably, historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of Orientalism as "anti-Western".[5] For subsequent editions of Orientalism, Said wrote an Afterword (1995)[6]: 329–52 and a Preface (2003)[6]: xi–xxiii addressing discussions of the book as cultural criticism.
Overview
"Orientalism"
The term
As such, Orientalism is the pivotal source of the inaccurate cultural representations that form the foundations of
Said distinguishes between at least three separate but interrelated meanings of the term:[6]: 2–3
- an academic tradition or field;
- a worldview, representation, and "style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident';" and
- as a powerful political instrument of domination.
In other words, Said had in mind the "Occidental" (or Western) views of eastern cultures that mirrored the prejudices and ideologies that the colonial experience of Western individuals was shaded by. Said's work drew attention to the obsession of Western writers with women and their role in the preservation (or destruction) of so-called cultural mores, viewing them as either "pristine" (redeemed) or "contaminated" (fallen).[7]
According to an article published by The New Criterion, the principal characteristic of Orientalism is a "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arab-Islamic peoples and their culture,"[8] which derives from Western images of what is Oriental (i.e., cultural representations) that reduce the Orient to the fictional essences of "Oriental peoples" and "the places of the Orient;" such representations dominate the discourse of Western peoples with and about non-Western peoples.[citation needed]
These cultural representations usually depict the 'Orient' as primitive, irrational, violent, despotic, fanatic, and essentially inferior to the westerner or native informant, and hence, 'enlightenment' can only occur when "traditional" and "reactionary" values are replaced by "contemporary" and "progressive" ideas that are either western or western-influenced.[9]
In practice, the imperial and colonial enterprises of the West are facilitated by
So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either
caricatures of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression.[12]
Moving from the assertion that 'pure knowledge' is simply not possible (as all forms of knowledge are inevitably influenced by ideological standpoints), Said sought to explain the connection between ideology and literature. He argued that "Orientalism is not a mere political subject or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions," but rather "a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts."[13] European literature for Said carried, actualised, and propelled Orientalist notions forward and constantly reinforced them. Put differently, literature produced by Europeans made possible the domination of the people of the 'East' because of the Orientalist discourse embedded within these texts. Literature here is understood as a kind of carrier and distributor of ideology.
He underscored again and again the importance of understanding the intimate relationship between knowledge and power, declaring: "If the knowledge of Orientalism has any meaning, it is in being a reminder of the seductive degradation of knowledge, of any knowledge, anywhere, at any time."[14]
Thesis of representation
Orientalism (1978) proposes that much of the Western study of Islamic civilization was an exercise in political intellectualism; a psychological exercise in the self-affirmation of "European identity"; not an objective exercise of intellectual enquiry and the academic study of Eastern cultures. Therefore, Orientalism was a method of practical and cultural discrimination that was applied to non-European societies and peoples in order to establish European imperial domination. In justification of empire, the Orientalist claims to know more—essential and definitive knowledge—about the Orient than do the Orientals.[6]: 2–3
One of the main themes of Said's critique is that the representations of the Orient as "different" from the West are based entirely on accounts taken from textual sources, many of them produced by Westerners. Modern on-the-ground reality is heavily discounted such that the Orient is implicitly disregarded as incapable or not credible to describe itself.[15]
Western writings about the Orient, the perceptions of the East presented in Orientalism, cannot be taken at face value, because they are cultural representations based upon fictional, Western images of the Orient. The history of European colonial rule and political domination of Eastern civilizations, distorts the intellectual objectivity of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning, and culturally sympathetic Western Orientalist; thus did the term "Orientalism" become a pejorative word regarding non–Western peoples and cultures:[16]
I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact—and yet that is what I am saying in this study of Orientalism.[6]: 11
The notion of cultural representations as a means for domination and control would remain a central feature of Said's critical approach proposed in Orientalism. Towards the end of his life for instance, Said argued that while representations are essential for the function of human life and societies—as essential as language itself—what must cease are representations that are authoritatively repressive, because they do not provide any real possibilities for those being represented to intervene in this process.[13]
The alternative to an exclusionary representational system for Said would be one that is "participatory and collaborative, non-coercive, rather than imposed," yet he recognised the extreme difficulty involved in bringing about such an alternative.[13] Difficult because advances in the "electronic transfer of images" is increasing media concentration in the hands of powerful, transnational conglomerates.[13] This concentration is of such great magnitude that 'dependent societies' situated outside of the "central metropolitan zones" are greatly reliant upon these systems of representation for information about themselves - otherwise known as self-knowledge.[13] For Said, this process of gaining self-knowledge by peripheral societies is insidious, because the system upon which they rely is presented as natural and real, such that it becomes practically unassailable.[13]
Geopolitics and cultural hierarchy
Said said that the Western world sought to dominate the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years, since Classical antiquity (8th c. BC – AD 6th c.), the time of the play The Persians (472 BC), by Aeschylus, which celebrates a Greek victory (Battle of Salamis, 480 BC) against the Persians in the course of the Persian Wars (499–449 BC)—imperial conflict between the Greek West and the Persian East.[6]: 1–2 [17] Europe's long, military domination of Asia (empire and hegemony) made unreliable most Western texts about the Eastern world, because of the implicit cultural bias that permeates most Orientalism, which was not recognized by most Western scholars.
In the course of empire, after the physical-and-political conquest, there followed the intellectual conquest of a people, whereby Western scholars appropriated for themselves (as European intellectual property) the interpretation and translation of Oriental languages, and the critical study of the cultures and histories of the Oriental world.[18] In that way, by using Orientalism as the intellectual norm for cultural judgement, Europeans wrote the history of Asia, and invented the "exotic East" and the "inscrutable Orient", which are cultural representations of peoples and things considered inferior to the peoples and things of the West.[6]: 38–41
The contemporary, historical impact of Orientalism was in explaining the how? and the why? of imperial impotence; in the 1970s, to journalists, academics, and Orientalists, the
Influence
The greatest intellectual impact of Orientalism (1978) was upon the fields of
Post-colonial culture studies
As a work of
Postcolonial theory studies the
Such disproportional investigation provoked criticism from opponents and embarrassment for supporters of Said, who, in "Orientalism Reconsidered" (1985), said that no single opponent provided a rationale, by which limited coverage of German Orientalism limits either the scholarly value or the practical application of Orientalism as a cultural study.[25] In the Afterword to the 1995 edition of Orientalism, Said presented follow-up refutations of the criticisms that the Orientalist and historian Bernard Lewis made against the book's first edition (1978).[6]: 329–54
Literary criticism
In the fields of
In White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (1990), Robert J. C. Young reports post-colonial explanations of the "How?" and the "Why?" of the nature of the post-colonial world, the peoples, and their discontents;[31][32] which verify the efficacy of the critical method applied in Orientalism (1978), especially in the field of Middle Eastern studies.[3]
In the late 1970s, the survey range of Orientalism (1978) did not include the genre of
not only a catalogue of Western prejudices about and misrepresentations of Arabs and Muslims" ... [but an investigation and analysis of the] authoritative structure of Orientalist discourse—the closed, self-evident, self-confirming character of that distinctive discourse, which is reproduced, again and again, through scholarly texts, travelogues, literary works of imagination, and the obiter dicta of public men-of-affairs.[35]
Historian Gyan Prakash said that Orientalism describes how "the hallowed image of the Orientalist, as an austere figure, unconcerned with the world and immersed in the mystery of foreign scripts and languages, has acquired a dark hue as the murky business of ruling other peoples, now forms the essential and enabling background of his or her scholarship" about the Orient; without colonial imperialism, there would be no Orientalism.[36]
Oriental Europe
In Eastern Europe, Milica Bakić-Hayden developed the concept of Nesting Orientalisms (1992), based upon and derived from the work of the historian Larry Wolff (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, 1994), and the ideas Said presents in Orientalism (1978).[37]
Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova (Imagining the Balkans, 1997) presented her ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms (Ethnologia Balkanica,1997), which is thematically extended and theoretically derived from Bakić-Hayden's Nesting Orientalisms.[38]
Moreover, in "A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism" (2010), James D. J. Brown says that Western stereotypes of Russia, Russianness, and things Russian are cultural representations derived from the literature of "Russian studies," which is a field of enquiry little afflicted with the misconceptions of Russia-as-the-Other, but does display the characteristics of Orientalism—the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western cultural superiority, and the application of cliché in analytical models. That overcoming such intellectual malaise requires that area scholars choose to break their "mind-forg'd manacles" and deeply reflect upon the basic cultural assumptions of their area-studies scholarship.[39]
Criticism
Despite the book's wide-ranging influence, some have taken issue with the arguments and assumptions of Orientalism. Critics include
In a review of a book by
Nonetheless, the literary critic
History
Ernest Gellner, in his book review titled "The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism: a review of Culture and Imperialism, by Edward Said" (1993), says that Said's contention of Western domination of the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years was unsupportable, because, until the late 17th century, the Ottoman Empire (1299–1923) was a realistic military, cultural, and religious threat to (Western) Europe.[46]
In "Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward Said" (2005), Mark Proudman noted incorrect 19th-century history in Orientalism, that the geographic extent of the
In For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (2006), Robert Irwin says that Said's concentrating the scope of Orientalism to the Middle East, especially Palestine and Egypt, was a mistake, because the Mandate of Palestine (1920–1948) and British Egypt (1882–1956) were only under direct European control for a short time, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; thus they are poor examples for Said's theory of Western cultural imperialism. That Orientalism should have concentrated upon noteworthy examples of imperialism and cultural hegemony, such as the British colony of India (1858–1947) and Russian colonies in Asia (1721–1917), but he did not, because, as a public intellectual, Edward Said was more interested in making political points about the politics of the Middle East, in general, and of Palestine, in particular.[49] Moreover, that by unduly concentrating on British and French Orientalism, Said ignored the domination of 19th century Oriental studies by German and Hungarian academics and intellectuals, whose countries did not possess colonies in the East.[50] He frankly states that the "book seems to me to be a work of malignant charlatanry in which it is hard to distinguish honest mistakes from wilful misrepresentations."[51]
Irwin's book was later reviewed by Amir Taheri, writing in Asharq Al-Awsat. He listed certain factual and editing errors, and noted a number of prominent Orientalists were left unmentioned, but says that he believes it to be "the most complete account of Orientalism from the emergence of its modern version in the 19th century to the present day." He also describes it as "a highly enjoyable read both for the specialist and the broadly interested reader."[52]
American
French orientalists Maxime Rodinson was surprised by the popularity of the book in the United States, calling it a "polemic" and a "bit Stalinist".[55]
Professional
In the article "Said's Splash" (2001), Martin Kramer says that, fifteen years after the publication of Orientalism (1978), UCLA historian Nikki Keddie (whom Said praised in Covering Islam, 1981) who originally had praised Orientalism as an "important, and, in many ways, positive" book, had changed her mind. In Approaches to the History of the Middle East (1994), Keddie criticises Said's work on Orientalism, for the unfortunate consequences upon her profession as an historian:
I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East field to adopt the word "orientalism" as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the "wrong" position on the Arab–Israeli dispute, or to people who are judged too "conservative". It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So, "orientalism", for many people, is a word that substitutes for thought and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Said meant at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan.[56]
Literature
In the article, "Edward Said's Shadowy Legacy" (2008), Robert Irwin says that Said ineffectively distinguished among writers of different centuries and genres of Orientalist literature. That the disparate examples, such as the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) who never travelled to the Orient; the French novelist Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) who briefly toured Egypt; the French Orientalist Ernest Renan (1823–1892), whose anti-Semitism voided his work; and the British Arabist Edward William Lane (1801–1876), who compiled the Arabic–English Lexicon (1863–93)—did not constitute a comprehensive scope of investigation or critical comparison.[57] In that vein, in Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism (2007), Ibn Warraq earlier had said that in Orientalism (1978) Said had constructed a binary-opposite representation, a fictional European stereotype that would counter-weigh the Oriental stereotype. Being European is the only common trait among such a temporally and stylistically disparate group of literary Orientalists.[58]
Philosophy
In The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past (1988), O. P. Kejariwal says that with the creation of a monolithic Occidentalism to oppose the Orientalism of Western discourse with the Eastern world, Said had failed to distinguish between the paradigms of Romanticism and the Enlightenment, and ignored the differences among Orientalists; and that he failed to acknowledge the positive contributions of Orientalists who sought kinship, between the worlds of the East and the West, rather than to create an artificial "difference" of cultural inferiority and superiority; such a man was William Jones (1746–1794), the British philologist–lexicographer who proposed that Indo–European languages are interrelated.[59]
In the essay "The Debate About 'Orientalism'", Harry Oldmeadow says that "Said’s treatment of Orientalism, particularly the assertion of the necessary nexus with imperialism, is over-stated and unbalanced." He objected to Said's view that Western Orientalists were projecting upon the "artificial screen" called 'the East' or 'the Orient', but that such projection was only a small part of the relationship. That Said failed to adequately distinguish between the genuine experiences of the Orient and the cultural projections of Westerners. He further criticized Said for using reductionist models of religion and spirituality, that are based on "Marxist/Foucauldian/psychoanalytic thought."[60]
George Landlow argued that Said assumed that such projection and its harmful consequences are a purely Western phenomenon, when in reality all societies do this to each other. This was a particular issue given Said treated Western colonialism as unique, which Landlow regarded as unsatisfactory for a work of serious scholarship.[61]
Cultural turn
Several scholars have critiqued Orientalism and Said's embrace of the cultural turn as a means of explaining colonialism. Vivek Chibber has highlighted how Orientalism argues that orientalist discourse was both a cause and an effect of colonialism - that on the one hand, orientalist scholarship (described by Said as "manifest orientalism") developed from the eighteenth century as a means of justifying the process of imperialist expansion, whilst on the other, a deeply ingrained tradition of broader orientalist depictions of the East stretching back to the classical era (which Said labelled "latent orientalism") played a role in creating the conditions for the launching of colonial projects. Whilst the first claim had previously been made by anti-colonial thinkers, the latter was novel.[62]
In the years after Orientalism was published, Said's arguments were critiqued by Sadiq Jalal al-Azm and Aijaz Ahmad. In 1981 Al-Azm suggested that conceiving of orientalism as "the natural product of an ancient and almost irresistible European bent of mind to misrepresent the realities of other cultures, peoples, and their languages, in favour of Occidental self-affirmation" served to reinforce the essentialism that was at the heart of orientalism, rather than challenging it, i.e. that the West is inherently incapable of understanding the East. Just over ten years later Ahmad raised two criticisms of Said's assertions: firstly, that according to Said orientalist views were so pervasive that he did not differentiate critics of colonialism such as Karl Marx from supporters of imperialism, despite the role of Marxists in anti-colonial struggles across the world, and secondly that Said's suggestion of cultural causes for imperialism displaced older Marxist, nationalist and liberal analyses based on the interests of economic classes, nations and individuals in favour of a "Clash of Civilizations" thesis.[62]
More recently, Chibber has pointed out that essentialist and
Personality
In the sociological article, "Review: Who is Afraid of Edward Said?" (1999) Biswamoy Pati said that in making
Hence, in the article "Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire", D.A. Washbrook said that Said and his academic cohort indulge in excessive
In the article "Orientalism Now" (1995), historian
Posthumous
In October 2003, one month after the death of Edward Said, the Lebanese newspaper
See also
References
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- ^ Oleg Grabar, Edward Said, Bernard Lewis, "Orientalism: An Exchange", New York Review of Books, Vol. 29, No. 13. 12 August 1982. Accessed 4 January 2010.
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- ^ Keith Windschuttle, "Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited," The New Criterion January 17, 1999.
- ^ Marandi, S.M. (2009). "Constructing an Axis of Evil: Iranian Memoirs in the "Land of the Free"". The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences: 24.
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- ^ Eagleton, Terry. 13 February 2006. "Book review of 'For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies', by Robert Irwin." New Statesman.
- ^ Eagleton, Terry. Eastern Block (book review of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, 2006, by Robert Irwin) Archived 18 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, New Statesman, 13 February 2006.
- ^ Said, Edward. 1985. "Orientalism Reconsidered." Cultural Critique 1(Autumn). p. 96.
- Chakravorty Spivak, Gayatri. 1987. In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics. London: Methuen.
- ^ Bhaba, Homi K. Nation and Narration, New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990.
- ^ Inden, Ronald. Imagining India, New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
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- ^ Dirks, Nicholas. Castes of Mind, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
- ^ Young, Robert. 1990. White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, New York & London: Routledge.
- ^ Emory University, Department of English, Introduction to Postcolonial Studies
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- ^ Asad, T. (1980) English Historical Review, p. 648
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Milica Bakić-Hayden built on Wolff's work, incorporating the ideas of Edward Said's "Orientalism"
- OCLC 41714232.
The idea of "Nesting Orientalisms", in Bakić-Hayden (1995), and the related concept of "Nesting balkanisms", in Todorova (1997) ...
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- ^ Bernard Lewis, "The Question of Orientalism", Islam and the West, London, 1993: pp. 99, 118.
- ^ Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, London: Allen Lane, 2006.
- ^ Martin Kramer, "Enough Said (review of Robert Irwin, Dangerous Knowledge)", March 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
- ^ Thornton, Bruce (17 August 2007). "Golden Threads". City Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
- ^ "Dangerous Knowledge by Robert Irwin". 1 March 2007. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
- ^ Nosal, K R. American Criticism, New York Standard, New York. 2002
- ^ Gellner, Ernest. 1993. "The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism" (review of Culture and Imperialism by Edward Said). Times Literary Supplement (19 February 1993):3–4.
- ^ Proudman, Mark F. 5 December 2005. "Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward Said." Journal of the Historical Society. Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Bayly, C. A. 1999. Empire and Information. Delhi: Cambridge UP. pp. 25, 143, 282.
- For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies. London: Allen Lane. pp. 159–60, 281–82.
- ^ Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: pp. 8, 155–66.
- ^ Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: Introduction.
- ^ "For Lust of Knowing the Orientalists and their Enemies". 15 May 2006.
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- The Film Journal12.
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Further reading
- Ankerl, Guy Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5
- Balagangadhara, S. N. "The Future of the Present: Thinking Through Orientalism", Cultural Dynamics, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1998), pp. 101–23. ISSN 0921-3740.
- Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930, U. of California Press, 2003
- Biddick, Kathleen (2000). "Coming Out of Exile: Dante on the Orient(alism) Express". The American Historical Review. 105 (4): 1234–1249. JSTOR 2651411.
- Brown, James D.J. (2010). "A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism". Politics. 30 (3): 149–159. S2CID 142770577.
- Fleming, K.E. (2000). "Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography". The American Historical Review. 105 (4): 1218–1233. JSTOR 2651410.
- Halliday, Fred (1993). "'Orientalism' and Its Critics". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 20 (2): 145–163. .
- Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN 0-7139-9415-0)
- Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
- Kalmar, Ivan Davidson & Derek Penslar. Orientalism and the Jews Brandeis 2005
- Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
- Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
- Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
- Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
- Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6).
- Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
- MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-7190-4578-9).
- Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
- Minuti, Rolando: Oriental Despotism, Institute of European History, 2012, retrieved: June 6, 2012.
- Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
- Orientalism and the Jews, edited by ISBN 1-58465-411-2).
- Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The east in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
- Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: ISBN 0-7892-0459-2).
- Prakash, Gyan. "Orientalism Now", History and Theory, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Oct., 1995), pp. 199–212.
- Rotter, Andrew J. "Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1205–1217.
- Varisco, Daniel Martin. "Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid." Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-295-98752-1).
Articles
- Alessandrini, Anthony, Aug 23, 2018, Essential Readings: Said’s Orientalism, Its Interlocutors, and Its Influence
- Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
- "Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge" at the Wayback Machine (archived August 8, 2010), CitizenTrack
- Martin Kramer, "Edward Said's Splash", Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
- Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog
- "Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism" at the Wayback Machine (archived August 8, 2010), Citizen Track
- Iskandar, Adel (July 2003). "Whenever, Wherever! The Discourse of Orientalist Transnationalism in the Construction of Shakira".
External links
- An Introduction to Edward Said, Orientalism, and Postcolonial Literary Studies, by Amardeep Singh
- Orientalism (1978), book review by Malcolm H. Kerr review
- Orientalism (1978) 25 Years Later, by Edward Said
- Said's Splash at the Wayback Machine (archived July 14, 2014), by Martin Kramer, about the book's academic consequences on the field of Middle Eastern studies.
- “Forty years on, Edward Said's 'Orientalism' still groundbreaking“, CBC Ideas Radio Program (23 Oct 2019).
- "The West Studies The East, and Trouble Follows", by William Grimes, a book review of Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and its Discontents (2006), by Robert Irwin. The New York Times (1 Nov. 2006).