Origin of the Albanians
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The origin of the
Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkan origin. Besides the Illyrians, theories regarding which specific ancient Paleo-Balkan group had participated in the origin of the Albanians vary between attributing Thracian, Dacian, or another Paleo-Balkan component whose language was unattested. Among those scholars who support an exclusively Illyrian origin, there is a distinction between those who propose a direct continuity from Illyrian times, and those who propose an in-migration of a different Illyrian population. However, these propositions are not mutually exclusive. The Albanians are also one of Europe's ethnic groups with the highest number of common ancestors within their own ethnic group even though they share ancestors with other ethnic groups.[3]
All aspects of
Endonyms
Arbënesh
The two ethnonyms used by Albanians to refer to themselves are Arbënesh(ë)/Arbëresh(ë) and
Albanians gradually replaced their old endonym by the term Shqiptar, a change most likely trigged after the Ottoman conquests of the Balkans in the 15th century.[12] The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward,[13] but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers.[14][13] The usage of the old endonym Arbënesh/Arbëresh, however, persisted and was retained by Albanian communities which had migrated from Albania and adjacent areas centuries before the change of the self-designation, namely the Arbëreshë of Italy, the Arvanites of Greece as well as the Arbanasi in Croatia.[15][16][17][18][19] As such, the medieval migrants to Greece and later migrants to Italy during the 15th-century are not aware of the term Shqiptar.[20]
References to Albania
- In the 2nd century BC, the History of the World written by Polybius, mentions a location named Arbona (Greek: Ἄρβωνα; Latinised form: Arbo)[21][22] in which some Illyrian troops, under Queen Teuta, scattered and fled to in order to escape the Romans. Arbona was perhaps an island in Liburnia or another location within Illyria.[23]
- The names Albanoi and Albanopolis have been attested in ancient funeral inscriptions in present-day North Macedonia. The toponym Albanopolis has been found on a funeral inscription in Gorno Sonje, near the city of Skopje (ancient Scupi), present-day North Macedonia. It was excavated in 1931 by Nikola Vulić and its text was curated and published in 1982 by Borka Dragojević-Josifovska. The inscription in Latin reads "POSIS MESTYLU F[ILIUS] FL[AVIA] DELVS MVCATI F[ILIA] DOM[O] ALBANOP[OLI] IPSA DELVS" ("Posis Mestylu, son of Flavia Delus, daughter of Mucat, who comes from Albanopolis"). It dates to the end of the 1st century AD and the beginning of the 2nd century AD.[24]
- In the 2nd century AD,
- The ethnonym Albanos was found on a funeral inscription from ancient Stobi in present-day North Macedonia, near Gradsko about 90 km to the southeast of Gorno Sonje. The inscription in ancient Greek reads "ΦΛ(ΑΒΙΩ) ΑΛΒΑΝΩ ΤΩ ΤΕΚΝΩ ΑΙΜΙΛΙΑΝΟΣ ΑΛΒΑΝΟ(Σ) ΜΝΗΜ(Η)Σ [ΧΑΡΗΝ]" ("In memory of Flavios Albanos, his son Aemilianos Albanos"). It dates to the 2nd/3rd century AD.[31]
- In the 6th century AD,
References to the Albanians in medieval sources
- The Arbanasi people are recorded as being 'half-believers' and speaking their own language in a Bulgarian text found in a Serbian manuscript dating to 1628; the text was written by an anonymous author that according to Radoslav Grujić (1934) dated to the reign of Samuel of Bulgaria (997–1014), or possibly, according to R. Elsie, 1000–1018.[38]
- In History written in 1079–1080, Byzantine historian Albani).[39] However a later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates, regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion in 1078, is undisputed. That rebellion was led by Nikephoros Basilakes, doux of Dyrrhachium.[40]
- Some authors (like Alain Ducellier, 1968Anna Comnena (c. 1148). Others believe that this is a wrong reading and interpretation of the Greek phrase ἐξ Ἀρβάνων (i.e. ‘from Arvana’) found in the original manuscript and in one edition (Bonn, 1839) of the Alexiad.[42]
- The earliest Serbian source mentioning "Albania" (Ar'banas') is a charter by Stefan Nemanja, dated 1198, which lists the region of Pilot (Pulatum) among the parts Nemanja conquered from Albania (ѡд Арьбанась Пилоть, "de Albania Pulatum").[43]
- In the 12th to 13th centuries, Byzantine writers used the name Kruja.
- The oldest reference to Albanians in Epirus is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that “the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians”.[44]
- A Ragusan document dating to 1285 states: "I heard a voice crying in the mountains in Albanian" (Audivi unam vocem clamantem in monte in lingua albanesca).[45]
Language
Pre-Indo-European linguistic substratum
Pre-Indo-European sites are found throughout the territory of Albania; such as in Maliq, Vashtëm, Burimas, Barç, Dërsnik in
This pre-Indo-European substratum has also been identified as one of the contributing factors to the customs of Albanians.[51]
Attestation
The first attested mention of Albanian occurred in 1285 at the
The earliest attested written specimens of Albanian are
However, as Fortson notes, Albanian written works existed before this point; they have simply been lost. The existence of written Albanian is explicitly mentioned in a letter attested from 1332, and the first preserved books, including both those in Gheg and in Tosk, share orthographic features that indicate that some form of common literary language had developed.[54]
Toponymy
In the Balkans and southern Italy, several toponyms, river and mountain names which have been attested since antiquity can be explained etymologically via Albanian or have evolved phonologically through Albanian and later adopted in other languages. Inherited toponyms from a Proto-Albanian language and the date of adoption of non-Albanian toponyms indicate in Albanology the regions were the Albanian language originated, evolved and expanded. Depending on which proposed etymology and phonological development linguists support, different etymologies are usually used to link Albanian to Illyrian, Messapic, Dardanian, Thracian or an unattested Paleo-Balkan language.
- Brindisi is a town in southern Italy. Brundisium was originally a settlement of the Iapygian Messapians, descendants of an Illyrian people who migrated from the Balkans to Italy in Late Bronze/Early Iron Age transition. The name highlights the ties between Messapic to Albanian as Messapic brendo (stag) is linked to Old Gheg bri (horns).[57]
- Bunë is a river in northwestern Albania, near the cities of Shkodër and Ulcinj (Ulqin). The majority of scholars consider it a directly inherited hydronym from Illyrian Barbanna. A less accepted proposition by Eqrem Çabej considers it an unrelated name which derives from buenë (overflow of waters). The hydronym Bunë via which Slavic Bojana emerged, is often seen as indication that Albanian was spoken in the pre-Slavic era in southern Montenegro.[58][59][60]
- Drin is a river in northern Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia. Similar hydronyms include Drino in southern Albania and Drina in Bosnia. It is generally considered to be of Illyrian origin.[61]
- Durrës is a city in central Albania. It was founded as an ancient Greek colony and greatly expanded in Roman times. It was known as Epidamnos and Dyrrhachion/Dyrrhachium. Dyrrhachium is of Greek origin and refers to the position of the city on a rocky shore. The modern names of the city in Albanian (Durrës) and Italian (Durazzo, Italian pronunciation: [duˈrattso]) are derived from Dyrrachium/Dyrrachion. An intermediate, palatalized antecedent is found in the form Dyrratio, attested in the early centuries AD. The palatalized /-tio/ ending probably represents a phonetic change in the way the inhabitants of the city pronounced its name.[62] The preservation of old Doric /u/ indicates that the modern name derives from populations to whom the toponym was known in its original Doric pronunciation.[63] The initial stress in Albanian Durrës presupposes an Illyrian accentuation on the first syllable.[59] Theories which support local Illyrian-Albanian continuity interpret Durrës < Dyrratio as evidence that Albanian-speakers continuously lived in coastal central Albania. Other theories propose that the toponym doesn't necessarily show continuity but can equally be the evolution of a loanword acquired by a Proto-Albanian population which moved in the city and its area in late antiquity from northern Albanian regions.[64][65]
- Epidamnos is the oldest known name of Durrës and it is the first name under which the ancient Greek Corinthian colony was known. It is widely considered to be of Illyrian origin, as first proposed by linguist Hans Krahe,[66] and is attested in Thucydides (5th century BC), Aristotle (4th century BC), and Polybius (2nd century BC).[67] Etymologically, Epidamnos may be related to Proto-Albanian *dami (cub, young animal, young bull) > dem (modern Albanian) as proposed by linguist Eqrem Çabej.[68]
- Dassareti tribe.[69]
- Ishëm is a river in central Albania. It is recorded as Illyrian Isamnus in antiquity. Albanian Ishëm derives directly from Isamnus and indicates that its ancestral language was spoken in the area.[59][70][71]
- Mat is a river in northern Albania. It is generally considered to be of Illyrian origin and originally meant "river bank, shore". It evolved within Albanian as an inherited term from its ancestral language. It indicates that it was spoken in the Mat river valley. A similar hydronym, Matlumë, is found in Kaçanik.[72][73][74]
- Nish (Niš) is a city in southeastern Serbia. It evolved from a toponym attested in Ancient Greek as ΝΑΙΣΣΟΣ (Naissos), which achieved its present form via phonetic changes in Proto-Albanian and thereafter entered Slavic. Nish might indicate that Proto-Albanians lived in the region in pre-Slavic times.[75] When this settlement happened is a matter of debate, as Proto-Albanians might have moved relatively late in antiquity in the area which might have been an eastern expansion of Proto-Albanian settlement as no other toponyms known in antiquity in the area presuppose an Albanian development.[71][76] The development of Nish < Naiss- may also represent a regional development in late antiquity Balkans which while related may not be identical with Albanian.[77]
- Vjosë is a river in southern Albania and northern Greece. In antiquity, it formed part of the boundary between Illyrian and Epirotic Greek languages. In the early Middle Ages, the Vjosa (in Greek, Aoos or Vovousa) river valley was settled by Slavic peoples. A gradual evolution within Albanian and a borrowing by Slavic-speakers or a borrowing from Slavic *Vojusha into Albanian have been proposed for Albanian Vjosë.[78][79] Both propositions are disputed. Regardless of the etymology, the Vjosë valley is an area of Albanian-Slavic linguistic contact from the 6th-7th century onwards.[80]
- Vlorë is a city in southwestern Albania. It was founded as ancient Greek colony Aulona (/Avlon/) in the pre-Roman era. Albanian Vlorë is a direct derivation from ancient Greek Aulon. A proposed Slavic intermediation from *Vavlona has been rejected as it doesn't conform to Albanian phonological development. The toponym has two forms, Vlorë (Tosk) and Vlonë (Gheg), which indicates that it was already in use among the population of Northern Albania before the appearance of rhotacism in Tosk.[81][82]
- Shkodër is a city in northwestern Albania. It is one of the most significant settlements in Albania and in the pre-Roman era it was the capital of the Illyrian kingdom of Genthius. Late antiquity Scodra was a Romanized city, which even relatively late in the Middle Ages had a native Dalmatian-speaking population which called it Skudra. Slavic Skadar is a borrowing from the Romance name. The origin of Albanian Shkodër/Shkodra as a direct development of Illyrian Scodra or as the development of a Latin loanword in Proto-Albanian is a subject of debate. In theories which reject a direct derivation from Scodra, the possible break in linguistic continuity from the Illyrian form is invoked as indication that Albanian was not spoken continuously in Shkodra and the surrounding area from pre-Roman to late antiquity.[83][84][57]
- Shkumbin is a river in central Albania. It derives from Latin Scampinus which replaced Illyrian Genusus, as recorded in Latin and ancient Greek literature. A Slavic intermediation has been rejected. Its inclusion in Latin loanwords into Proto-Albanian and phonetic evolution coincides with the historical existence of a large Roman town (near present-day Elbasan) which gave the river its new name.[71][85]
- Shtip (Štip) is a city in eastern North Macedonia. It was known in antiquity as Astibo-s. It is generally acknowledged that Slavic Štip was acquired via Albanian Shtip.[75] About the date of settlement of Proto-Albanians in eastern Macedonia similar arguments as in the case of Nish have emerged.[71][76]
Linguistic reconstruction
Albanian is attested in a written form beginning only in the 15th century AD. In the absence of prior data on the language, scholars have used Albanian linguistic contacts with
Pastoralism
That Albanian possesses a rich and "elaborated"
Albanian-speakers appear to have been
Hydronyms
Concerning the inheritance of hydronymic vocabulary, it has been noted that there were no lexemes relating to
Vegetation
Regarding
Social organization
The original kinship terminology of Indo-European was radically reshaped; changes included a shift from "mother" to "sister", and were so thorough that only three terms retained their original function; the words for "son-in-law", "mother-in-law" and "father-in-law".[101] All the words for second-degree blood kinship, including "aunt", "uncle", "nephew", "niece", and terms for grandchildren, are ancient loans from Latin.[102]
Linguistic contacts
Overall patterns in loaning
Openness to loans has been called a "characteristic feature" of Albanian. The Albanian original lexical items directly inherited from Proto-Indo-European are far fewer in comparison to the loanwords, though loans are considered to be "perfectly integrated" and not distinguishable from native vocabulary on a synchronic level.[103] Although Albanian is characterized by the absorption of many loans, even, in the case of Latin, reaching deep into the core vocabulary, certain semantic fields nevertheless remained more resistant. Terms pertaining to social organization are often preserved, though not those pertaining to political organization, while those pertaining to trade are all loaned or innovated.[104]
While the words for plants and animals characteristic of mountainous regions are entirely original, the names for fish and for agricultural activities are often assumed to have been borrowed from other languages. However, considering the presence of some preserved old terms related to the sea fauna, some have proposed that this vocabulary might have been lost in the course of time after proto-Albanian tribes were pushed back into the inland during invasions.[105][106] Wilkes holds that the Slavic loans in Albanian suggest that contacts between the two populations took place when Albanians dwelt in forests 600–900 metres above sea level.[107]
Greek
Linguistic contact between Albanian and Greek has been securely dated to the Iron Age. Also contacts between the respective post-PIE languages which gave rise to the two languages also occurred in previous times. Common traces of the Mediterranean-Balkan substratum are considered to date to the common Indo-European phase of Albanian and Greek (c.f.
Ancient Greek loans in
According to Hermann Ölberg, the modern Albanian lexicon may include 33 words of ancient Greek origin,
Evidence of a significant level of early
- the rise of the close front rounded vowel /y/ (documented in Attic and Koine Greek);
- the rise of dental fricatives;
- the voicing of voiceless plosives after nasal consonants;
- the replacement, with a form that featured a prefix, of the inherited present tense 3rd person singular of the verb "be" (documented in Koine Greek).
Those innovations are limited only to the Albanian and Greek languages and are not shared with other languages of the Balkan sprachbund.[125] Since they precede the Balkan sprachbund era, those innovations date to a prehistoric phase of the Albanian language, spoken at that time in the same area as Greek and within a social frame of bilingualism among early Albanians having to be able to speak some form of Greek.[126]
Latin and early Romance loans
Latin loans are dated to the period of 167 BC to 400 AD.[127] 167 BC coincides with the fall of the kingdom ruled by Gentius and reflects the early date of the entry of Latin-based vocabulary in Albanian. It entered Albanian in the Early Proto-Albanian stage and evolved in later stages as a part of the Proto-Albanian vocabulary and within its phonological system. Albanian is one of the oldest languages that came into contact with Latin and adopted Latin vocabulary. It has preserved 270 Latin-based words which are found in all Romance languages, 85 words which are not found in Romance languages, 151 which are found in Albanian but not in Eastern Romance and its descendant Romanian, and 39 words which are found only in Albanian and Romanian.[128] The contact zone between Albanian and Romanian was likely located in eastern and southeastern Serbia.[129] The preservation of Proto-Albanian vocabulary and linguistic features in Romanian highlights that at least partly Balkan Latin emerged as Albanian-speakers shifted to Latin.[130]
The other layer of linguistic contacts of Albanian with Latin involves Old Dalmatian, a western Balkan derivative of Balkan Latin. Albanian maintained links with both coastal western and central inland Balkan Latin formations.[131] Hamp indicates there are words that follow Dalmatian phonetic rules in Albanian, giving as an example the word drejt 'straight' < d(i)rectus matching developments in Old Dalmatian traita < tract.[120] Romanian scholars Vatasescu and Mihaescu, using lexical analysis of Albanian, have concluded that Albanian was also heavily influenced by an extinct Romance language that was distinct from both Romanian and Dalmatian. Because the Latin words common to only Romanian and Albanian are significantly less than those that are common to only Albanian and Western Romance, Mihaescu argues that Albanian evolved in a region with much greater contact with Western Romance regions than with Romanian-speaking regions, and located this region in present-day Albania, Kosovo and Western North Macedonia, spanning east to Bitola and Pristina.[132]
The Christian religious vocabulary of Albanian is mostly Latin as well, including even the basic terms such "to bless", "altar," and "to receive communion". It indicates that Albanians were Christianized under the Latin-based liturgy and ecclesiastical order which would be known as "Roman Catholic" in later centuries.[118]
Slavic
The contacts began after the
The evolution of the ancient toponym Lychnidus into Oh(ë)r(id) (city and lake), which is attested in this form from 879 CE, required an early long-standing period of Tosk Albanian–East South Slavic bilingualism, or at least contact, resulting from the Tosk Albanian rhotacism -n- into -r- and Eastern South Slavic l-vocalization ly- into o-.[56]
As Albanian and Slavic have been in contact since the early Middle Ages, toponymical loanwords in both belong to different chronological strata and reveal different periods of acquisition. Old Slavic loanwords into Albanian develop early Slavic *s as sh and *y as u within Albanian phonology of that era.
Unidentified Romance language hypothesis
It has been concluded that the partial Latinization of Roman-era Albania was heavy in coastal areas, in the plains, and along the Via Egnatia, which passed through Albania. In these regions, Madgearu notes that the survival of Illyrian names and the depiction of people with Illyrian dress on gravestones is not enough to prove successful resistance against Romanization, and that in these regions there were many Latin inscriptions and Roman settlements. Madgearu concludes that only the northern mountain regions escaped Romanization. In some regions, Madgearu concludes that it has been shown that in some areas a Latinate population that survived until at least the seventh century passed on local place names that had mixed characteristics of Eastern and Western Romance into Albanian.[132]
Archaeology
The
What was established in this early phase of research was that Komani-Kruja settlements represented a local, non-Slavic population which has been described as Romanized Illyrian, Latin-speaking or Latin-literate.[159][160] This is corroborated by the absence of Slavic toponyms and survival of Latin ones in the Komani-Kruja area. In terms of historiography, the thesis of older Albanian archaeology was an untestable hypothesis as no historical sources exist which can link Komani-Kruja to the first definite attestation of medieval Albanians in the 11th century.[159][160] Archaeologically, while it was considered possible and even likely that Komani-Kruja sites were used continuously from the 7th century onwards, it remained an untested hypothesis as research was still limited.[161] Whether this population represented local continuity or arrived at an earlier period from a more northern location as the Slavs entered the Balkans remained unclear at the time but regardless of their ultimate geographical origins, these groups maintained Justinianic era cultural traditions of the 6th century possibly as a statement of their collective identity and derived their material cultural references to the Justinianic military system.[162] In this context, they may have used burial customs as a means of reference to an "idealized image of the past Roman power".[162]
Research greatly expanded after 2009 and the first survey of Komani's topography was produced in 2014. Until then, except for the area of the cemetery the size of the settlement and its extension remained unknown. In 2014, it was revealed that Komani occupied an area of more than 40 ha, a much larger territory than originally thought. Its oldest settlement phase dates to the Hellenistic era.[163] Proper development began in the late antiquity and continued well into the Middle Ages (13th-14th centuries). It indicates that Komani was a late Roman fort and an important trading node in the networks of Praevalitana and Dardania. In the Avar-Slavic raids, communities from present-day northern Albania and nearby areas clustered around hill sites for better protection as is the case of other areas like Lezha and Sarda. During the 7th century as Byzantine authority was reestablished after the Avar-Slavic raids and the prosperity of the settlements increased, Komani saw increase in population and a new elite began to take shape. Increase in population and wealth was marked by the establishment of new settlements and new churches in their vicinity. Komani formed a local network with Lezha and Kruja and in turn this network was integrated in the wider Byzantine Mediterranean world, maintained contacts with the northern Balkans and engaged in long-distance trade.[164] Tom Winnifrith (2020) says that the Komani-Kruja culture shows that in that area a Latin-Illyrian civilization survived, to emerge later as Albanians and Vlachs. The lack of interest among Slavs for the barren mountains of Northern Albania would explain the survival of Albanian as a language.[165]
Paleo-Balkan linguistic theories
The general consensus is that Albanians originate from one or possibly a mixture of Paleo-Balkan peoples but which specific peoples besides Illyrians is a matter of continuing debate.[166][167][168]
Messapic is the only sufficiently attested ancient language via which commonly accepted Illyrian-Albanian connections have been produced. It is unclear whether Messapic was an Illyrian dialect or if it diverged enough to be a separate language, although in general it is treated as a distinct language. Dardanian in the context of a distinct language has gained prominence in the possible genealogy of the Albanian language in recent decades.[10]
The Illyrian linguistic theory has some consensus, but Illyrian language is too little attested for definite comparisons to be made. Further issues are linked to the definitions of "Illyrian" and "Thracian" which are vague and aren't applied to the same areas which were considered to be part of
Albanian shows traces of
The debate is often politically charged, and to be conclusive, more evidence is needed. Such evidence unfortunately may not be easily forthcoming because of a lack of sources.[183]
Illyrian
The very first recorded mention of a connection between Illyrians and Albanians is in 1709, attributed to the German philosopher and mathematician
In terms of linguists or historians, the theory that Albanians were related to the Illyrians was proposed for the first time by the Swedish[185] historian Johann Erich Thunmann in 1774.[186] The scholars who advocate an Illyrian origin are numerous.[187][188][189][190] Those who argue in favour of an Illyrian origin maintain that the indigenous Illyrian tribes dwelling in South Illyria (including today's Albania) went up into the mountains when Slavs occupied the lowlands,[191][192] while another version of this hypothesis states that the Albanians are the descendants of Illyrian tribes located between Dalmatia and the Danube who spilled south.[193]
Some of the arguments for the Illyrian-Albanian connection have been as follows:[190][194]
- From what is known from the old Balkan populations territories (Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians, Dacians), Albanian is spoken in a region where Illyrian was spoken in ancient times.[195]
- There is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since the records of Illyrian occupation.[195] Because descent from Illyrians makes "geographical sense" and there is no linguistic or historical evidence proving a replacement, then the burden of proof lies on the side of those who would deny a connection of Albanian with Illyrian.[196]
- The analyzed the morphology of some tribal names and pointed out that the Illyrian suffix -at appeared in the names of Illyrian tribes, such as Docleatae, Labeatae, Autariates, Delmatae correspondends to the suffix -at appeared in the 15th century Albanian tribes names like Bakirat and Demat; in Albania today, the suffixes of the names of some villages, such as Dukat and Filat, do match to the Illyrian one.
- Many of what remain as attested words to Illyrian have an Albanian explanation and also a number of Illyrian lexical items (anthroponyms, etc.) have been linked to Albanian.[200]
- Words borrowed from Latin (e.g. Latin aurum > ar "gold", gaudium > gaz "joy" etc.[201]) date back before the Christian era,[194][195] while the Illyrians on the territory of modern Albania were the first from the old Balkan populations to be conquered by Romans in 229–167 BC, the Thracians were conquered in 45 AD and the Dacians in 106 AD.
- The characteristics of the Albanian dialects Tosk and Gheg
Messapic
Thracian or "Daco-Moesian"
Aside from an Illyrian origin, Thracian or "Daco-Moesian" origins have also been hypothesized based on linguistic arguments that had been claimed as evidence, although in current historical linguistics the documented Thracian material clearly points to a different language than Albanian or its reconstructed precursor,[214][215][216][217][182] whereas the "Daco-Mysian" hypothetical relation is highly based on speculations that have been thoroughly dismantled by other scholars.[218]
Scholars who support a Dacian origin maintain on their side that Albanians moved southwards between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD from the Moesian area.[219] Others argue instead for a Thracian origin and maintain that the proto-Albanians are to be located in the area between Niš, Skopje, Sofia and Albania[220] or between the Rhodope and Balkan Mountains, from which they moved to present-day Albania before the arrival of the Slavs.[221]
German historian
Cities whose names follow Albanian phonetic laws – such as Shtip (Štip), Shkupi (Skopje) and Nish (Niš) – lie in the areas, believed to historically been inhabited by Thracians, Paionians and Dardani; the latter is most often considered an Illyrian tribe by ancient historians. While there still is no clear picture of where the Illyrian-Thracian border was, Niš is mostly considered Illyrian territory.[229]
There are some close correspondences between Thracian and Albanian words.
Bulgarian linguist
Apart from the linguistic theory that Albanian is more akin to East Balkan Romance (i.e. Dacian substrate) than West Balkan Romance (i.e. Illyrian/Dalmatian substrate), Georgiev also notes that marine words in Albanian are borrowed from other languages, suggesting that Albanians were not originally a coastal people.[121] According to Georgiev the scarcity of Greek loan words also supports a "Daco-Mysian" theory – if Albanians originated in the region of Illyria there would surely be a heavy Greek influence.[121] According to historian John Van Antwerp Fine, who does define "Albanians" in his glossary as "an Indo-European people, probably descended from the ancient Illyrians",[234] nevertheless states that "these are serious (non-chauvinistic) arguments that cannot be summarily dismissed."[121] Romanian scholars Vatasescu and Mihaescu, using lexical analysis of Albanian, have concluded that Albanian was also heavily influenced by an extinct Romance language that was distinct from both Romanian and Dalmatian. Because the Latin words common to only Romanian and Albanian are significantly less than those that are common to only Albanian and Western Romance, Mihaescu argues that Albanian evolved in a region with much greater contact to Western Romance regions than to Romanian-speaking regions, and located this region in present-day Albania, Kosovo and Western North Macedonia, spanning east to Bitola and Pristina.[132]
An argument against a Thracian origin (which does not apply to Dacian) is that most Thracian territory was on the Greek half of the
The Dacian theory could also be consistent with the known patterns of barbarian incursions. Although there is no documentation of an Albanian migration, "during the fourth to sixth centuries the Rumanian region was heavily affected by large-scale invasion of Goths and Slavs, and the Morava valley (in Serbia) was a possible main invasion route and the site of the earliest known Slavic sites. Thus this would have been a region from which an indigenous population would naturally have fled".[121]
Genetic studies
Various genetic studies have been done on the European population, some of them including current Albanian population, Albanian-speaking populations outside Albania, and the Balkan region as a whole. Albanians share similar genetics with neighbouring ethnic populations with close clusters forming primarily with mainland Greeks and southern Italian populations.[235][236][237][238]
Y-DNA
The three haplogroups most strongly associated with Albanian people are
- E-V13, the most common European sub-clade of E1b1b1a (E-M78) represents about 1/3 of all Albanian men and peaks in Kosovo (~40%). The current distribution of this lineage might be the result of several demographic expansions from the Balkans, such as that associated with the Balkan Bronze Age, and more recently, during the Roman era with the so-called "rise of Illyrian soldiery".[239][240][241][242][243] The peak of the haplogroup in Kosovo, however, has been attributed to genetic drift.[240]
- R1b-M269 represents about 1/5 of Albanian men, mostly under clades R-Z2103 and R-PF7562. It is linked with the introduction of the Indo-European languages in the Balkans.[244] The oldest R1b (> R-RPF7562) sample in historically Albanian-inhabited regions has been found in EBA Çinamak, northern Albania, 2663-2472 calBCE (4045±25 BP, PSUAMS-7926). In the same site during the Iron Age, half of the men carried R-M269 (R-CTS1450 x1).[245]
- J2b-L283 represents 14-18% of Albanian men.[246] It peaks in northern Albania. The oldest J-L283 (> J-Z597) sample in Albania found in MBA Shkrel as early as the 19th century BC.[245] It first spread from the northwestern Balkans southwards during the EBA/MBA with cultures likes Cetina (Dalmatia) and Cetina-derived groups which have yielded most J-L283 samples in antiquity.[245] In a 2022 study, J-L283 and its paternal clade J-M241 were found in three out of seven Daunian samples.[247] In IA Çinamak(northern Albania), half of the samples belonged to J-L283.[245]
- Y haplogroup I is represented by I1 more common in northern Europe and I2 where several of its sub-clades are found in significant amounts in the South Slavic population. The specific I sub-clade which has attracted most discussion in Balkan studies currently referred to as I2a1b, defined by SNP M423[248][249] This clade has higher frequencies to the north of the Albanophone area, in Dalmatia and Bosnia.[240] The expansion of I2a-Din took place during Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages and today is common in Slavic speaking peoples.[250]
- Slavic areas.[240]
A study by Battaglia et al. in 2008[239] found the following haplogroup distributions among Albanians in Albania itself:
N | E-M78* E1b1b1a* | E-M78 V13 E1b1b1a2 | G P15* G2a* | I-M253* I1* | I M423 I2a1* | I M223 I2b1 | J M267* J1* | J M67* J2a1b* | J M92 J2a1b1 | J M241 J2b2 | R M17* R1a1* | R M269 R1b1b2 |
55 | 1.8% (1/55) |
23.6% (13/55) |
1.8% (1/55) |
3.6% (2/55) |
14.5% (8/55) |
3.6% (2/55) |
3.6% (2/55) |
3.6% (2/55) |
1.8% (1/55) |
14.5% (8/55) |
9.1% (5/55) |
18.2% (10/55) |
The same study by Battaglia et al. (2008) also found the following distributions among Albanians in North Macedonia:
N | E-M78* E1b1b1a* | E-M78 V13 E1b1b1a2 | E-M123 E1b1b1c | G P15* G2a* | I M253* I1* | I P37.2* I2a* | I M423 I2a1* | I M26 I2a2 | J M267* J1* | J M67* J2a1b* | J M241 J2b2 | R M17* R1a1* | R M269 R1b1b2 |
64 | 1.6% (1/64) |
34.4% (22/64) |
3.1% (2/64) |
1.6% (1/64) |
4.7% (3/64) |
1.6% (1/64) |
9.4% (6/64) |
1.6% (1/64) |
6.3% (4/64) |
1.6% (1/64) |
14.1% (9/64) |
1.6% (1/64) |
18.8% (12/64) |
The same study by Battaglia et al. (2008) also found the following distributions among Albanians in Albania itself and Albanians in North Macedonia:
N | E-M78* E1b1b1a* | E-M78 V13 E1b1b1a2 | E-M123 E1b1b1c | G P15* G2a* | I M253* I1* | I P37.2* I2a* | I M423 I2a1* | I M26 I2a2 | I M223 I2b1 | J M267* J1* | J M67* J2a1b* | J M92 J2a1b1 | J M241 J2b2 | R M17* R1a1* | R M269 R1b1b2 |
55+ 64= 119 |
1.68% (2/119) |
29.4% (35/119) |
1.68% (2/119) |
1.68% (2/119) |
4.2% (5/119) |
0.84% (1/119) |
11.76% (14/119) |
0.84% (1/119) |
1.68% (2/119) |
5.04% (6/119) |
2.52% (3/119) |
0.84% (1/119) |
14.3% (17/119) |
5.04% (6/119) |
18.5% (22/119) |
A study by Peričić et al. in 2005[240] found the following Y-Dna haplogroup frequencies in Albanians from Kosovo with E-V13 subclade of haplogroup E1b1b representing 43.85% of the total (note that Albanians from other regions have slightly lower percentages of E-V13, but similar J2b and R1b):
N | E-M78* E3b1 | E-M78* α* E3b1-α | E-M81* E3b2 | E-M123* E3b3 | J-M241* J2e1 | I-M253* I1a | I-P37* I1b*(xM26) | R-M173* R1b | R SRY-1532* R1a | R P*(xQ,R1) |
114 | 1.75% (2/114) |
43.85% (50/114) |
0.90% (1/114) |
0.90% (1/114) |
16.70% (19/114) |
5.25% (6/114) |
2.70% (3/114) |
21.10% (24/114) |
4.40% (5/114) |
1.75% (2/114) |
The same study by Peričić et al. in 2005[240] found the following Y-Dna haplogroup frequencies in Albanians from Kosovo with E-V13 subclade of haplogroup E1b1b representing 43.85% of the total (note that Albanians from other regions have slightly lower percentages of E-V13, but similar J2b and R1b):
N | E3b1-M78 | R1b-M173 | J2e-M102 | R1a-M17 | I1b* (xM26)-P37 | I-M253* I1a |
114 | 45.60% (52/114) |
21.10% (24/114) |
16.70% (19/114) |
4.40% (5/114) |
2.70% (3/114) |
5.25% (6/114) |
Population | Language family [Table 1] |
n [Table 2] |
R1b
[Table 3] |
n | R1a
|
n | I
|
n | E1b1b
|
n | E1b1a
|
n | J | n | G
|
n | N
|
n | T
|
n | L
|
n | H |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albanians | IE (Albanian) | 106 | 23.58% (25/106)[249] |
19 44 |
E-M78a 31.58% (6/19) Cruciani2004[243] E-M78 25% (11/44)[252] |
56 | J-M102 14.29% (8/56) J-M67 3.57% (2/56) J-M92 1.79% (1/56) J-M172 J2 19.64% (11/56) J-M267 J1 =3.57% (2/56) 23.21%(13/56)[252] |
||||||||||||||||
Albanians | IE (Albanian) | 51 | R1b M173 17.65% (9/51)[242] |
51 | R1a M17 9.8% (5/51)[242] |
106 | I1b* (xM26) P37 16.98% (18/106)[249] |
63 | E3b1 M78 26.98% (17/63)[252] Cruciani2004[243] |
56 | J2e M102 14.29% (8/56)[252] |
||||||||||||
Kosovo Albanians (Pristina) | IE (Albanian) | 114 | 21.10% (24/114)[240] |
114 | 4.42% (5/114)[240] |
114 | (I1a) 5.31% (6/114) I1b*(xM26) 2.65% (3/114) 7.96% (9/114)[240] |
114 | (E3b1) 1.75% (2/114) (E3b1-α) 43.85% (50/114) (E3b2) 0.90% (1/114) (E3b3) 0.90% (1/114) 47.40% (54/114)[240] |
114 | (J2e1) 16.70% (19/114)[240] |
||||||||||||
Albanians (Tirana) | IE (Albanian) | 30 | 18.3[253] | 30 | 8.3[253] | 30 | 11.7[253] | 30 | 28.3[253] | 30 | 0.0[253] | 30 | 20.0[253] | 30 | 3.3[253] | ||||||||
Albanians | IE (Albanian) | 55 | (R1b1b2) 18.2% (10/55)[239] |
55 | (R1a1*) 9.1% (5/55)[239] |
55 | (I1*) 3.6% (2/55) (I2a1*) 14.5% (8/55) (I2b1) 3.6% (2/55) 21.7% (12/55)[239] |
55 | (E-M78) 1.8% (1/55) (E-V13) 23.6% (13/55) 25.4% (14/55)[239] |
55 | 0.0[239] | 55 | (J1*) 3.6% (2/55) (J2a1b*) 3.6% (2/55) (J2a1b1) 1.8% (1/55) (J2b2) 14.5% (8/55) 23.5% (13/55)[239] |
55 | (G2a*) 1.8% (1/55)[239] |
55 | 0.0[239] | 55 | 0.0[239] | 55 | 0.0[239] | ||
Albanians (North Macedonia) | IE (Albanian) | 64 | (R1b1b2) 18.8% (12/64)[239] |
64 | (R1a1*) 1.6% (1/64)[239] |
64 | (I1*) 4.7% (3/64) (I2a*) 1.6% (1/64) (I2a1*) 9.4% (6/64) (I2a2) 1.6% (1/64) 17.3% (11/64)[239] |
64 | (E-M78) 1.6% (1/64) (E-V13) 34.4% (22/64) (E-M123) 3.1% (2/64) 39.1% (25/64)[239] |
64 | 0.0[239] | 64 | (J1*) 6.3% (4/64) (J2a1b*) 1.6% (1/64) (J2b2) 14.1% (9/64) 22% (14/64)[239] |
64 | (G2a*) 1.6% (1/64)[239] |
64 | 0.0[239] | 64 | 0.0[239] | 64 | 0.0[239] | ||
Albanians (Tirana) and Albanians (North Macedonia) |
IE (Albanian) | 55+ 64= 119 |
R1b1b2 18.50% (22/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
R1a1* 5.05% (6/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
I1* 4.2% (5/119) (I2a* 0.85% (1/119) I2a1* 11.8% (14/119) I2a2 0.85% (1/119) I2a 13.5% (16/119) (I2b1 1.7% (2/119) 19.33% (23/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
E-M78 1.7 (2/119) E-V13 29.4% (35/119) E-M123 1.7 (2/119) 32.8% (39/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
0.0[239] | 55+ 64= 119 |
J1* 5.05% (6/119) J2a1b* 2.55% (3/119) J2a1b1 0.85% (1/119) J2a 3.4% (4/119) J2b2 14.3% (17/119) 22.70% (27/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
G2a* 1.7% (2/119)[239] |
55+ 64= 119 |
0.0[239] | 55+ 64= 119 |
0.0[239] | 55+ 64= 119 |
0.0[239] | ||
Population | Language family [Table 1] |
n [Table 2] |
R1b
[Table 3] |
n | R1a
|
n | I
|
n | E1b1b
|
n | E1b1a
|
n | J | n | G
|
n | N
|
n | T
|
n | L
|
n | H |
Population | Language [Table 1] |
n | R1b |
R1a |
I |
E1b1b |
J | G |
N |
T |
Others | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albanians | IE (Albanian) | 51 | R1b M173 17.65% (9/51) |
R1a M17 9.8% (5/51) |
I1b* (xM26) P37 16.98% (18/106) |
E3b1 M78 26.98% (17/63) |
J2e M102 14.29% (8/56) |
2.0% (9/51) |
0.0 | 0.0 | Pericic2005[240] | |
Albanians (Pristina) | IE (Albanian) | 114 | R1b 21.10% (24/114) |
R1a 4.42% (5/114) |
I1a 5.31% (6/114) I1b*(xM26) 2.65% (3/114) 7.96% (9/114) |
E3b1 1.75% (2/114) E3b1-α 43.85% (50/114) E3b2 0.90% (1/114) E3b3 0.90% (1/114) 47.40 (54/114) |
J2e1 16.7% (19/114) |
0 | 0 | 0 | P*(xQ,R1) 1.77 (2/114) |
Pericic2005[240] |
Albanians (Tirana) | IE (Albanian) | 30 | 13.3 | 13.3 | 16.7 | 23.3 | 20.0 | 3.3 | Bosch2006[253] | |||
Albanians (Tirana) | IE (Albanian) | 55 | R1b1b2 18.2 (10/55) |
R1a1* 9.1 (5/55) |
I1* 3.6 (2/55) I2a1* 14.5 (8/55) I2b1 3.6 (2/55) 21.8% (12/55) |
E-M78 1.8% (1/55) E-V13 23.6% (13/55) 25.4% (14/55) |
J1* 3.6 (2/55) (J2a1b* 3.6 (2/55) J2a1b1 1.8 (1/55) J2a 5.4% (3/55)) J2b2 14.5 (8/55) 23.5% (13/55) |
G2a* 1.8 (1/55) |
0.0 | 0.0 | Battaglia2008[239] | |
Albanians (North Macedonia) | IE (Albanian) | 64 | R1b1b2 18.8% (12/64) |
R1a1* 1.6% (1/64) |
I1* 4.7 (3/64) (I2a* 1.6 (1/64) I2a1* 9.4 (6/64) I2a2 1.6 (1/64) I2a 12.6% (8/64)) 17.2% (11/64) |
E-M78 1.6 (1/64) E-V13 34.4% (22/64) E-M123 3.1 (2/64) 39.1% (25/64) |
J1* 6.3 (4/64) J2a1b* 1.6 (1/64) J2b2 14.1 (9/64) 22% (14/64) |
G2a* 1.6% (1/64) |
0.0 | 0.0 | Battaglia2008[239] | |
Albanians (Tirana) AND Albanians (North Macedonia) |
IE (Albanian) | 55+ 64= 119 |
R1b1b2 18.50% (22/119) |
R1a1* 5.05% (6/119) |
I1* 4.2% (5/119) (I2a* 0.85% (1/119) I2a1* 11.8% (14/119) I2a2 0.85% (1/119) I2a 13.5% (16/119) I2b1 1.7 (2/119) 19.33% (23/119) |
E-M78 1.7 (2/119) E-V13 29.4% (35/119) E-M123 1.7 (2/119) 32.8% (39/119) |
J1* 5.05% (6/119) J2a1b* 2.55% (3/119) J2a1b1 0.85% (1/119) J2a 3.4% (4/119) J2b2 14.3% (17/119) 22.70% (27/119) |
G2a* 1.7% (2/119) |
0.0 | 0.0 | Battaglia2008[239] | |
Albanians | IE (Albanian) | 223 | 18.39% (41/223) |
4.04% (9/223) |
13% (29/223) |
35.43% (79/223) |
23.77% (53/223) |
2.69% (6/223) |
0 | 0.9% (2/223) |
1.79% (4/223) |
Sarno2015[254] |
Table notes:
A study on the Y chromosome haplotypes DYS19 STR and YAP and on mitochondrial DNA found no significant difference between Albanians and most other Europeans.[255]
Larger samples collected by volunteer-led projects, show the Albanians belong largely to
In a 2013 study which compared one Albanian sample to other European samples, the authors concluded that it did not differ significantly to other European populations, especially groups such as
mtDNA
Another study of old Balkan populations and their genetic affinities with current European populations was done in 2004, based on
Computing the frequency of common point mutations of the present-day European population with the Thracian population has resulted that the Italian (7.9%), the Albanian (6.3%) and the Greek (5.8%) have shown a bias of closer [mtDna] genetic kinship with the Thracian individuals than the Romanian and Bulgarian individuals (only 4.2%).[260]
Autosomal DNA
Analysis of autosomal DNA, which analyses all genetic components has revealed that few rigid genetic discontinuities exist in European populations, apart from certain outliers such as
In Lazaridis et al. (2022) a transect of samples from Albania which date from the EBA to the present day were tested. The population of Albania "appears to be largely made up of the same components in similar proportions" since the MBA. The core part of this profile consists of 50% Anatolian Neolithic Farmers, 20-25% Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers, 10-15% Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.[261] According to this study, the speakers of Albanian, as well as Greek and other Paleo-Balkan languages, go back directly to the migration of Yamnaya steppe pastoralists into the Balkans about 5,000 to 4,500 years ago, whose admixture with the local populations generated a tapestry of various ancestry, which in Albanians resulted in the above-mentioned components.[262]
Another study, from 2023, concludes that "a significant proportion" of the Modern Albanians paternal ancestry comes from West Balkans "including those traditionally known as Illyrians"[263]
Obsolete hypotheses
Italian hypothesis
Caucasian hypothesis
One of the earliest theories on the origins of the Albanians, now considered obsolete, incorrectly identified the proto-Albanians with an area of the eastern
Pelasgian hypothesis
In terms of historical theories, an outdated theory
"Free Dacian" hypothesis
In the late 19th and early 20th century Romanian linguist Hasdeu speculated the origin of Albanians from the free Dacians (i.e., according to him, the Costoboci, the Carpi and the Bessi), after their alleged migration southwards from outside the Danubian or Carpathian limes during Roman Imperial times. His outdated methods are linguistically unsustainable and his reconstructed narrative is based on no factual evidence.[272] This unfounded narrative was revived in the late 20th century by Romanian historian I. I. Russu[273] persistently and beyond the scientific knowledge that was achieved in the meantime. Despite having a history background, he made claims in the field of philology and comparative linguistics, eager to prove the autochthony of the Romanian people in their present-day heartlands (mainly north of the Danube and in Transylvania).[274] According to him, the pre-Roman lexical element shared with Romanian ("Traco-Dacian"), the massive Roman lexical element in Albanian, and the little Ancient Greek element, indicate an origin from the Thracian Carpi beyond the northeastern borders of the Empire, in the Carpatho-Danubian areas where Romanization could have been averted. Although Russu himself reported Pedersen's argument according to which precisely the large Latin influence and the small Ancient Greek influence speak in favor of the Illyrian origin of Albanian, the question arises why Russu ignored the fact that the large Latin influence actually indicates the location of Albanian within the Roman world and not outside it. Russu's linguistic analysis obviously has errors, and above all his mode of argumentation goes even beyond Hasdeu's romantic narrative.[275]
See also
- Albanians
- Albanian language
- Albanian nationalism
- Ethnogenesis
- Historiography and nationalism
- Paleo-Balkan languages
- Prehistoric Balkans
Notes
- ^ As the tribe of the Albanoi (Ἀλβανοί) in Ptolemy's Geography. The name Arbōn (Ἄρβων) had been used by Polybius in the 2nd century BC to designate a city in Illyria.
- ^ Example include Ancient Greek λάχανον and its Albanian reflex lakër because it would appear to have been loaned before <χ> changed from an aspirated stop /kʰ/ to a fricative /x/, μᾱχανά and its Albanian reflex mokër which likewise seems to reflect a stop /kʰ/ for <χ> and also must be specifically Doric or Northwestern (other Greek dialects have <e> or <η> rather than <ά>), and θωράκιον and its Albanian reflex targozë which would appear to have predated the frication of Greek <θ> (before the shift in Koine, representing /tʰ/).[119]
Sources
Citations
- ISBN 9781476604473.
- ^ Plasari 2020, pp. 10–11
- PMID 17351267.
- ^ Friedman 2022, pp. 189–231.
- ^ Lazaridis & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2022.
- ^ Fortson 2010, p. 448.
- ^ Lafe 2021, p. 81.
- ISBN 978-0-226-06457-4.
- ^ a b Demiraj 2020, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d Rusakov 2017, p. 555.
- ^ Campbell 2009, p. 120.
- ^ Rusakov 2017, p. 154f.
- ^ a b Matasović 2019, p. 39.
- ^ Lloshi 1999, p. 277.
- ^ Rusakov 2017, pp. 554–555:
"The name with the root arb- is mentioned in old Albanian documents, but it went out of use in the main part of Albanian-speaking area and remains in use only in diaspora dialects (It.-Alb. arbëresh, Gr.-Alb. arvanitas). In other areas, it has been replaced by the term with the root shqip-."
- ^ Demiraj 2010, pp. 534, 536:
"The ethnic name shqiptar has always been discussed together with the ethnic complex: (tosk) arbëresh, arbëror, arbër — (gheg) arbënesh, arbënu(e)r, arbën; i.e. [arbën/r(—)]. [...] Among the neighbouring peoples and elsewhere the denomination of the Albanians is based upon the root arb/alb, cp. Greek 'Αλβανός, 'Αρβανός "Albanian", 'Αρβανίτης "Arbëresh of Greece", Serbian Albanac, Arbanas, Bulg., Mac. албанец, Arom. arbinés (Papahagi 1963 135), Turk. arnaut, Ital. albanese, German Albaner etc. This basis is in use among the Arbëreshs of Italy and Greece as well."
- ^ Lloshi 1999, p. 277:
"They called themselves arbënesh, arbëresh, the country Arbëni, Arbëri, and the language arbëneshe, arbëreshe. In the foreign languages, the Middle Ages denominations of these names survived, but for the Albanians they were substituted by shqiptarë, Shqipëri and shqipe... Shqip spread out from the north to the south, and Shqipni/Shqipëri is probably a collective noun, following the common pattern of Arbëni, Arbëri."
- ^ Cole 2011, p. 15:
"Arbëreshë was the term self-designiation of Albanians before the Ottoman invasion of the 15 century; similar terms are used for Albanian origins populations living in Greece ("Arvanitika," the Greek rendering of Arbëreshë) and Turkey ("Arnaut," Turkish for the Greek term Arvanitika)".
- ^ Malcolm 1998, pp. 22–40:
"The Albanians who use the 'Alb-' root are the ones who emigrated to Italy in the fifteenth century, who call themselves 'Arberesh'."
- ^ Bartl 2001, p. 20:
"Today, the common name for Albanians, i.e. Albania, shqiptar, Shqiperia, is more recent. Albanians who settled in Greece in the Middle Ages and those who emigrated to Italy in the 15th century and later do not actually know about this name. The origin of the name Shqiptar is not clearly established. Until recently, the favorite interpretation was that it was derived from the Albanian shqipe "lord, nobility", thus "lord's sons". It is more likely, however, that the modern name given by the Albanians to themselves is derived from shqipon "to speak clearly" or from shqipton "to pronounce" (compared to the Slavic name nemci "dumb; those who do not speak intelligibly")."
- ^ Polybius. "2.11.15". Histories.
Of the Illyrian troops engaged in blockading Issa, those that belonged to Pharos were left unharmed, as a favour to Demetrius; while all the rest scattered and fled to Arbona
. - ^ Polybius. "2.11.5". Histories (in Greek).
εἰς τὸν Ἄρβωνα σκεδασθέντες
. - ^ Strabo (1903). "2.5 Note 97". In H. C. Hamilton; W. Falconer (eds.). Geography. London: George Bell & Sons.
The Libyrnides are the islands of Arbo, Pago, Isola Longa, Coronata, &c., which border the coasts of ancient Liburnia, now Murlaka
- ^ Dragojević-Josifovska 1982, p. 32.
- ^ Ptolemy (1843). "III.13(12).23". Geography (in Greek). Lipsiae, Sumptibus et typis Caroli Tauchnitii.
- ISBN 978-0-415-06449-1.
- ISBN 9780195170726.
- ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3.
- ISBN 9781598843026.
- ISBN 978-0816049646.
- ^ Spasovska-Dimitrioska 2000, p. 258
- ^ a b Stephanus of Byzantium (1849). "Ἀρβών". Ethnika kat' epitomen (in Greek). Berolini : G. Reimeri.
πόλις Ἰλλυρίας. Πολύβιος δευτέρᾳ. τὸ ἐθνικὸν Ἀρβώνιος καὶ Ἀρβωνίτης, ὡς Ἀντρώνιος καὶ Ἀσκαλωνίτης
. - ISBN 9781136787997.
Polybius' own attitude to Rome has been variously interpreted, pro-Roman, … frequently cited in reference works such as Stephanus' Ethnica and the Suda.
- ISBN 9780521521345.
In four places, the lexicographer Stephanus of Byzantium refers to towns and ... Artemidorus as source, and in three of the four examples cites Polybius.
- ^ a b Plasari 2020, p. 41
- ^ Quanrud 2021, p. 1.
- ^ Plasari 2020, p. 43.
- ^ "1000 - 1018 — Anonymous: Fragment on the Origins of Nations". Texts and Documents of Albanian History. Robert Elsie. Archived from the original on 2014-01-26.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) [Extract from:Radoslav Grujic (1934). "Legenda iz vremena Cara Samuila o poreklu naroda". Glasnik skopskog naucnog drustva, Skopje, 13. pp. 198–200. Translated from the Old Church Slavonic by Robert Elsie. First published in R. Elsie (2003). Early Albania, a Reader of Historical Texts, 11th - 17th Centuries. Wiesbaden. p. 3.{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)] - ^ a b Madgearu & Gordon 2008, p. 25 "It was supposed that those Albanoi from 1042 were Normans from Sicily, called by an archaic name (the Albanoi were an independent tribe from Southern Italy)."
- ^ Madgearu & Gordon 2008, p. 25 "The following instance is indisputable. It comes from the same Attaliates, who wrote that the Albanians (Arbanitai) were involved in the 1078 rebellion of Nikephor Basilakes."
- ^ Alain Ducellier, “L’Arbanon et les Albanais au xie siècle”, Travaux et Mémoires 3 (1968): 353–68.
- .
- ^ Ludwig Thallóczy, Konstantin Jireček, & Milan Šufflay, Acta et diplomata res Albaniae mediae aetatis illustrantia [= Diplomatic and Other Documents on Medieval Albania], vol. 1 (Vienna: 1913), 113 (1198).
- .
- ISBN 978-1-317-39153-1.
- ^ a b Demiraj 2006, pp. 42–43: "Therefore we are going to limit the discussion of this issue to the western areas of the Balkan peninsula, where the Albanian people have been living since many centuries ago. These areas, too, thanks to their geographical position, should have been inhabited since long before the immigration of the I.E. tribes, who are usually called Illyrians (...). The ancient presence of Pre-I.E. people(s) in this areas has been proved, inter alia, by the archaeological discoveries at Maliq, Vashtëmi, Burimas, Podgorie, Barç and Dërsnik of Coritza district, as well as at Kamnik of Cologna district, at Blaz and Nezir of Mati district, at Kolsh of Kukës district, at Rashtan of Librazhd etc."
- ^ Demiraj 2008, p. 38: "Gjithsesi, duke qenë se shqipja është një gjuhë indoeuropiane, stërgjyshërit e drejtpërdrejtë të shqiptarëve të sotëm duhen kërkuar tek ajo popullsi indoeuropiane, që erdhi e u vendos në këtë gadishull, natyrisht duke iu mbishtresuar një popullsie më të hershme indoeuropiane apo paraindoeuropiane."
- ^ a b c Demiraj 2006, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Orel 1998, pp. 225, 409.
- ISBN 978-9048137497.
- ^ Rusakov 2017, p. 102, 554.
- ^ Rusakov 2017, p. 554.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0315-2.
But we know there were earlier works which have vanished without a trace: the existence of written Albanian is already mentioned in a letter of 1332, and the first preserved books in both Geg and Tosk share features of spelling that indicate some kind of common literary language had already developed.
- ^ Fischer & Schmitt 2022; Lafe 2022; B. Demiraj 2016; Matzinger 2009; Sh. Demiraj 2006.
- ^ a b Friedman 2003, pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2018, p. 1790: "None of the ancient personal names ascribed to Illyrian are continued in Albanian without interruption (e.g. ... from Latin Scodra).... Albanian cannot be regarded as an offspring of Illyrian or even Thracian but must be considereed to be a modern continuation of some other undocumented Indo-European Balkan idiom. However, Albanian is closely related to Illyrian and also Messapic... which is why Albanian in some instances may shed light on the explanation of Messapic as well as Illyrian words..."
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 474.
- ^ a b c Katičić 1976, p. 186
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 148.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 149.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, pp. 133–34
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 132.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 212.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 17.
- ^ Shehi 2017, p. 108.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 126.
- ^ Demiraj 1997, pp. 128–29.
- ^ Kunstmann & Thiergen 1987, pp. 110–112.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 150.
- ^ a b c d Ismajli 2015, p. 263.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 10.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 154.
- ^ a b Prendergast 2017, p. 80.
- ^ a b Ismajli 2015, p. 109.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 13.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 9.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 155.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 485.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 145: "It should be recollected that in the Gheg dialect this place-name is pronounced Vlonë, which indicates that this place-name has been in use among the population of Northern Albania prior to the appearance of rhotacism in the southern dialect."
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 424.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, pp. 138–39.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 8.
- ^ Demiraj 2006, p. 150
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 6.
- ^ De Vaan 2018, p. 1732
- ^ Matasović 2019, p. 6
- ^ a b Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2018, pp. 1791–1792.
- ^ Vermeer 1996, p. 127.
- ^ Orel 2000, pp. 267~268.
- ^ Oreshko 2020, p. 118.
- ^ Malaj 2013, p. 45.
- ^ Oreshko 2020, p. 116.
- ^ Haarman 2007, p. 159.
- ^ a b Orel 2000, pp. 264–265.
- ^ a b Rusakov 2017, p. 556.
- ^ a b Lafe 2022, p. 364.
- ^ Orel 1998, p. 247.
- ^ Orel 2000, pp. 266–267.
- ^ Orel 2000, p. 261: "The entire system of Indo-European kinship terms was completely reshaped in Proto-Albanian (apparently reflecting a radical social change). The only remaining terms keeping their original function are those of the parents-in-law and son-in-law[.]"
- ^ Orel 2000, p. 262: "Second degree blood kinship was apparently irrelevant in the Proto-Albanian social structure. All corresponding terms have been borrowed from Latin[.]"
- ^ Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2018, p. 1791.
- ^ Orel 2000, p. 263.
- ^ Dečev, Dimităr D. (1952). Charakteristik der thrakischen Sprache [Characteristic of the Thracian language] (in German). Sofija Akademia. p. 113.
- ^ Çabej 1961, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Wilkes 1995, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b Demiraj 2013, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Kroonen et al. 2022, pp. 11, 26, 28
- ^ Thorsø 2019, p. 258.
- ^ Joseph 2013, p. 7.
- ^ a b Huld, Martin E. (1986). "Accentual Stratification of Ancient Greek Loanwords in Albanian". Zeitschrift für vergleichend Sprachforschung: 245–253.
- ^ a b Crăciun 2023, pp. 77–81.
- ^ a b Witczak 2016, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Huld 1986, pp. 245–250.
- ^ Huld 1984, p. 158.
- ^ Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (2016). The earliest Albanian loanwords in Greek. 1st International Conference on Language Contact in the Balkans and Asia Minor. Institute of Modern Greek Studies. pp. 40–42 – via Academia.edu.
- ^ a b Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2018, p. 1792.
- ^ a b Curtis 2012, p. 16.
- ^ a b Hamp 1963.
- ^ a b c d e Fine 1991, p. 11.
- ^ Huld 1986, pp. 245–253: " The presence of ancient West Greek loans in Albanian implies that in classical antiquity the precursors of the Albanians were a Balkan tribe to the north and west of the Greeks. Such people would probably have been 'Illyrians' to classical writers. This conclusion is neither very surprising nor very enlightening since the ethnographic terminology of most classical authors is not very precise. An Illyrian label does little to solve the complex problems of the origins of the Albanian language"
- ^ Çabej 1961.
- ^ Çabej, Eqrem (1964). "Einige Grundprobleme der alteren albanischen Sprachgeschichte". Studia Albanica. 1: 69–89.
- ^ a b Vermeer 2008, pp. 604–605.
- ^ a b Joseph 2016, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2018, p. 1732.
- ^ Demiraj 2008, p. 120.
- ^ a b Fine 1991, pp. 10–12.
- ^ Prendergast 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Hamp 1963, p. 105.
- ^ a b c Madgearu & Gordon 2008, pp. 146–147
- ^ Rusakov 2017, p. 557.
- ^ Curtis 2012, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Hamp 2002, p. 249.
- ^ Friedman 2019, p. 19.
- ^ Dedvukaj & Ndoci 2023, pp. 6–8.
- ^ Ylli 1997, p. 317.
- ^ Orel 2000, p. 38.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 197.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 103.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 106.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 136.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 175.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 174.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 183.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 269.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 165.
- ^ Ylli 2000, p. 267.
- ^ Viereck 1993, p. 122.
- ^ Desnickaja 1973, p. 49.
- ^ Curta 2012, p. 70.
- ^ Filipovski 2010, p. 67.
- ^ Bowden 2004, p. 60.
- ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 278.
- ^ Nallbani 2017, p. 315.
- ^ Curta 2012, p. 73.
- ^ Curta 2012, pp. 73–74: "Nonetheless, it is quite clear that despite claims to the contrary, burial assemblages associated with the so-called Komani culture (..) have nothing to do either with sixth- to seventh- century sites in the Lower Danube region known from written sources to have been inhabited by Slavs (..). In many respects, the communities who buried their dead in western Macedonia continued the traditions of Late Antiquity (..) There are of course new elements (..) But nothing indicates that those were communities coming from beyond the border of the Empire. Judging from the archaeological evidence, no Slavs have settled in Macedonia during the seventh century.
- ^ a b Wilkes 1995, p. 278
- ^ a b Bowden 2003, p. 61
- ^ Bowden 2004, p. 229: The question of continuity remains unanswered. It is certainly possible and indeed likely that these sites remained occupied into the seventh century and beyond. (..) Perhaps most importantly the hilltop sites need to be examined in relation to earlier Roman settlement and land use patterns, from which they appear such a radical departure.
- ^ a b Curta 2013: Whether refugees from the northern and central re- gions of the Balkans abandoned by the Roman army and administra- tion, or simply locals who refused to withdraw, those who after ca. 620 buried their dead in northern Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia, and the island of Corfu may have done so having in mind the idealized image of the past Roman power.
- ^ Nallbani 2017, p. 320.
- ^ Nallbani 2017, p. 325.
- ISBN 9781909930957.
And in these hills a Latin-Illyrian civilisation survived as witnessed by the Komani-Kruja culture, to emerge as Albanians and Vlachs in the second millenium
- .
- ProQuest 214565742.
- ^ JSTOR 3014121.
- ^ Rusakov 2017, p. 555: In the case of Thracian, one should mention 'Daco-Misian' which was assumed by V. Georgiev to be a separate language and a direct ancestor of Albanian.
- ^ a b c d Demiraj 2006, p. 78.
- ^ Friedman 2020, p. 388.
- ^ Friedman 2022.
- ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 235.
- ^ Prendergast 2017, p. 80: Illyrian or Thracian are forwarded as the primary candidates (Çabej 1971:42), with Illyrian having some scholarly consensus (Thunmann 1774:240, Kopitar 1829:85, Katičić 1976:184-188, Polomé 1982:888)—but there is a significant lack of verified inscriptions (Çabej 1971:41, Woodard 2004:11, Mann 1977: 1) and it is unclear whether ‘Illyrian’ as a term used in Roman records even referred to a single common language from which modern Albanian could descend (Hamp 1994).
- ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 86.
- ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 70.
- ^ Polomé 1982, p. 867.
- ^ Trumper 2018, p. 385.
- ^ Matasović, Ranko (2012). "A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for students of Indo-European". Page 17:"It has been claimed that the difference between the three PIE series of gutturals is preserved in Albanian before front vowels. This thesis, sometimes referred to as Pedersen's law, is often contested, but still supported by the majority of Albanologists (e. g. Hamp, Huld, Ölberg, Schumacher and Matzinger). In examining this view, one should bear in mind that it seems certain that there were at least two palatalizations in Albanian: the first palatalization, whereby labiovelars were palatalized to s and z before front vowels and *y, and the second palatalization, whereby all the remaining velars (*k and *g) were palatalized to q and gj, respectively, in the same environment. PIE palatalized velars are affected by neither palatalization (they yield Alb. th, d, dh, cf. Alb. thom 'I say' < *k'ēnsmi, cf. Skr. śāṃs- 'praise', L cēnseo 'reckon')."
- ]
- ^ "Illyrian". MultiTree: A Digital Library of Language Relationships. Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
- ^ a b Hamp 1980, p. 60.
- ^ Curtis 2012, p. 18.
- ^ "1705-1715 | Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Correspondence on the Albanian Language".
- ^ "1774 — Johann Thunmann: On the History and Language of the Albanians and Vlachs". Texts and Documents of Albanian History. Robert Elsie. Archived from the original on 2010-06-17.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) [from:Johann Thunmann (1774). "Legenda iz vremena Cara Samuila o poreklu naroda". Über die Geschichte und Sprache der Albaner und der Wlachen. Leipzig. Translated from the German by Robert Elsie.] - ^ Thunmann, Johannes E. (1774). Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte der Oslichen Europaischen Volger. Leipzig: Teil.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0316-9.
- ^ Stipčević, Alexander. Iliri (2nd edition). Zagreb, 1989 (also published in Italian as "Gli Illiri")
- ^ Hammond, Nicholas (1992). "The Relations of Illyrian Albania with the Greeks and the Romans". In Winnifrith, Tom (ed.). Perspectives on Albania. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8155-5047-1.
Illyrian has survived. Geography has played a large part in that survival; for the mountains of Montenegro and northern Albania have supplied the almost impenetrable home base of the Illyrian-speaking peoples. They were probably the first occupants, apart from nomadic hunters, of the Accursed Mountains and their fellow peaks, and they maintained their independence when migrants such as the Slavs occupied the more fertile lowlands and the highland basins. Their language may lack the cultural qualities of Greek, but it has equaled it in its power to survive and it too is adapting itself under the name of Albanian to the conditions of the modern world.
- ^ Thunman, Hahn, Kretschmer, Ribezzo, La Piana, Sufflay, Erdeljanovic and Stadtmüller view referenced in (Hamp 1963, p. 104)
- ^ Jireček view referenced in (Hamp 1963, p. 104)
- ^ a b c Demiraj, Shaban. Prejardhja e shqiptarëve në dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe.(Origin of the Albanians through the testimonies of Albanian) Shkenca (Tirane) 1999
- ^ ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
The Greek and Latin loans have undergone most of the far-reaching phonological changes which have so altered the shape of inherited words while Slavic and Turkish words do not show those changes. Thus Albanian must have acquired much of its present form by the time Slavs entered into Balkans in the fifth and sixth centuries AD [...] borrowed words from Greek and Latin date back to before Christian era [...] Even very common words such as mik "friend" (<Lat. amicus) or këndoj "sing" (<Lat. cantare) come from Latin and attest to a widespread intermingling of pre-Albanian and Balkan Latin speakers during the Roman period, roughly from the second century BC to the fifth century AD.
- ^ Katicic, Radoslav. 1976. The Ancient Languages of the Balkans. Berlin: Mouton. Page 188.
- ISBN 1789201713.
- ISBN 84-249-1787-1.
- ^ Çabej (1965:93)
- ^ Hamp 1963 "Jokl's Illyrian-Albanian correspondences (Albaner §3a) are probably the best known. Certain of these require comment: …"
- ^ Çabej, Eqrem. Karakteristikat e huazimeve latine të gjuhës shqipe. (The Characteristics of Latin Loans in Albanian) SF 1974/2 (In German RL 1962/1) (13-51)
- ^ Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 23: "In Tosk /a/ before a nasal has become a central vowel (shwa), and intervocalic /n/ has become /r/. These two sound changes have affected only the pre-Slav stratum of the Albanian lexicon, that is the native words and loanwords from Greek and Latin"
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0316-9.
The dialectal split into Geg and Tosk happened sometime after the region become Christianized in the fourth century AD; Christian Latin loanwords show Tosk rhotacism, such as Tosk murgu "monk" (Geg mungu) from Lat. monachus.
- ISBN 9783110184181. "Following the Slavic invasions of the Balkans (sixth and seventh centuries AD) Common Albanian split into two major dialect complexes that can be identified today by a bundle of isoglosses running through the middle of Albania along and just to the south of the river Shkumbini south of Elbasan, then along the course of the Black Drin (Drin i Zi, Crni Drim) through the middle of Struga on the north shore of Lake Ohrid in Macedonia. The two major dialect groups are known as Tosk (south of the bundle) and Gheg north of the bundle).
- ^ Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 23: "The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk."
- ^ Hamp 1963 "The isogloss is clear in all dialects I have studied, which embrace nearly all types possible. It must be relatively old, that is, dating back into the post-Roman first millennium. As a guess, it seems possible that this isogloss reflects a spread of the speech area, after the settlement of the Albanians in roughly their present location, so that the speech area straddled the Jireček Line."
- ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 68.
- ^ Hamp & Adams 2013, p. 8.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 45.
- ^ Matzinger 2005, p. 48.
- ^ Matzinger 2005, pp. 33–35.
- ^ Trumper 2018, p. 385: "Overall, the complex of Albanian dialects remains a solid block of the Albanoid group still relatable with Messapic (observed in place naming in Apulia: some towns have no etymon outside Albanoid sources, for example in toponyms such as Manduria)."
- ^ Aigner-Foresti 2004, p. 82: "Elementi linguistici (particelle, preposizioni, suffissi, lessico, ma anche toponimi, antroponimi e teonimi) del messapico trovano, infatti, singolare riscontro nell’albanese."
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 113.
- ^ Matzinger 2012, pp. 643–644.
- ^ Kortlandt 2003, p. 86.
- ^ Vermeer 1996, p. 126, 128.
- ^ Malcolm 1998, p. 33.
- ^ Sextil Pușcariu, Vasile Pârvan, Theodor Capidan referenced in (Hamp 1963, p. 104)
- ^ Weigand, as referenced in (Hamp 1963, p. 104)
- ^ Baric, as referenced in (Hamp 1963, p. 104)
- ^ 1994 Gottfried Schramm: A New Approach to Albanian History
- ISSN 1874-6705. p. 105.
- ^ Matzinger 2016, p. 15-16.
- ^ Philippide, Originea Rominilor, vol. 1, pp 11
- ^ Velkov, 'La Thrace', p.188.
- ^ Kosovo: A Short History - Noel Malcolm - Notes to pages - Jirecek, 'Die Romanen', (i) p.13: Philippide, Originea Rominilor, vol. 1, pp.70-2; Papazoglu, 'Les Royaumes', pp.193-5.Albanian does preserve a very small quantity of borrowings from ancient Greek;see Thumb, 'Altgriechische Elemente'; Jokl, 'Altmakedonisch'; Cabej, 'Zur Charakteristik', p.182. This low level of borrowings from Greek is a further argument against the identification of Albanians with Bessi, part of whose tribal territory was Hellenized: see Philippide, Originea Rominilor, vol. 1, pp 11, 283; Velkov, 'La Thrace', p.188.
- ^ Demiraj 2010b, p. 78
- ^ Hamp 1963 "...we still do not know exactly where the Illyrian-Thracian line was, and NaissoV (Nis) is regarded by many as Illyrian territory."
- ^ a b Malcolm, Noel. "Kosovo, a short history". London: Macmillan, 1998, p. 22-40.
- ^ a b c Kosovo: A Short History
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 10.
- ^ di Giovine, Tracio, dacio ed albanese'
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 304 (glossary): "Albanians: An Indo-European people, probably descended from the ancient Illyrians, living now in Albania as well as in Greece and Yugoslavia."
- ^ "Mediterranean peoples share a common recent ancestry—except mainland Greeks". 30 June 2017.
- PMID 18758442.
- PMID 18685561.
- PMID 28512355.
- ^ PMID 19107149.
- ^ PMID 15944443.
- ^ Bird, Steve (2007). "Haplogroup E3b1a2 as a possible indicator of settlement in Roman Britain by soldiers of Balkan origin". Journal of Genetic Genealogy. 3 (2): 26–46.
- ^ PMID 11073453.
- ^ PMID 15042509.
- PMID 25731166.
- ^ a b c d Lazaridis & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2022: Supplementary Files, Table S1 / Supplementary Materials
- ^ Lauka, Muhaj & Bojaxhi 2021, p. 91.
- ^ Aneli et al. 2022, p. 23.
- ^ Latest designations can be found on the [www.isogg.org ISOGG] website. In some articles this is described as I-P37.2 not including I-M26.
- ^ PMID 15162323.
- S2CID 210168662.
- S2CID 207963632.
- ^ PMID 15069642.
- ^ S2CID 23156886.
- S2CID 4983538.
- PMID 10909846.
- ^ - Rrenjet: Prejardhja gjenetike e shqiptareve - Statistics - Projekti Rrënjët është nje vend ku shqiptarët që kanë kryer teste gjenetike mund të regjistrojnë rezultatet e tyre, për të pasur mundësi t’i krahasojnë me rezultatet në databazën tonë, si dhe me rezultate të tjera publike nga popullsi të lashta dhe bashkëkohore. Ky projekt drejtohet dhe mirëmbahet nga vullnetarë. Ky projekt nuk është kompani testimi.
- ^ Gjenetika - Statistics - This site, and the Albanian DNA Project, was created and maintained by volunteers. The purpose of this page is to reveal the mosaic of human groups that have created over the centuries and that today constitute the Albanian ethnogenesis through the genetic testing of male lines. The aim is not to promote or emphasize racial purity, as such a thing does not exist but to better understand the historical contexts and human movements in the region where we live. When each of us does DNA testing, the result not only serves the individual to better understand his or her ancient origins and regions within Albania from which his or her ancestors may have descended, but also serves to shed light on different groupings. human beings that today make up the Albanian community. DNA testing is a tool to better understand our history based more and more on science and less on word of mouth
- ^ PMID 23667324.
- S2CID 34824809.
- ^ a b c Cardos G., Stoian V., Miritoiu N., Comsa A., Kroll A., Voss S., Rodewald A. (2004 Romanian Society of Legal Medicine) Paleo-mtDNA analysis and population genetic aspects of old Thracian populations from South-East of Romania Archived 2009-02-12 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lazaridis & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2022, p. 224 (Supplementary Materials).
- ^ Lazaridis & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2022, pp. 1, 10.
- S2CID 259127123. Retrieved August 3, 2023.
- ^ Michaelis Attaliotae: Historia, Bonn 1853, p. 8, 18, 297. Translated by Robert Elsie. First published in R. Elsie: Early Albania, a Reader of Historical Texts, 11th – 17th Centuries, Wiesbaden 2003, p. 4–5.
- ^ Schwandner-Sievers & Fischer 2002, p. 74.
- The Newsletter of the Society Farsharotu, Vol, XXI & XXII, Issues 1 & 2. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
the "Pelasgian theory" was formulated, according to which Greek and Albanian were claimed to have a common origin in Pelasgian, the Albanians themselves are Pelasgians... Needless to say, there is absolutely no scientific evidence to support any of theses theories.
- . Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Schwandner-Sievers & Fischer 2002, p. 77.
- ^ Schwandner-Sievers & Fischer 2002, p. 77–79.
- ^ Schwandner-Sievers & Fischer 2002, p. 78–79.
- ^ De Rapper, Gilles (2009). "Pelasgic Encounters in the Greek–Albanian Borderland: Border Dynamics and Reversion to Ancient Past in Southern Albania." Anthropological Journal of European Cultures. 18. (1): 60-61. “In 2002, another important book was translated from Greek: Aristides Kollias’ Arvanites and the Origin of Greeks, first published in Athens in 1983 and re-edited several times since then (Kollias 1983; Kolia 2002). In this book, which is considered a cornerstone of the rehabilitation of Arvanites in post- dictatorial Greece, the author presents the Albanian speaking population of Greece, known as Arvanites, as the most authentic Greeks because their language is closer to ancient Pelasgic, who were the first inhabitants of Greece. According to him, ancient Greek was formed on the basis of Pelasgic, so that man Greek words have an Albanian etymology. In the Greek context, the book initiated a 'counterdiscourse' (Gefou-Madianou 1999: 122) aiming at giving Arvanitic communities of southern Greece a positive role in Greek history. This was achieved by using nineteenth-century ideas on Pelasgians and by melting together Greeks and Albanians in one historical genealogy (Baltsiotis and Embirikos 2007: 130–431, 445). In the Albanian context of the 1990s and 2000s, the book is read as proving the anteriority of Albanians not only in Albania but also in Greece; it serves mainly the rehabilitation of Albanians as an antique and autochthonous population in the Balkans. These ideas legitimise the presence of Albanians in Greece and give them a decisive role in the development of ancient Greek civilisation and, later on, the creation of the modern Greek state, in contrast to the general negative image of Albanians in contemporary Greek society. They also reverse the unequal relation between the migrants and the host country, making the former the heirs of an autochthonous and civilised population from whom the latter owes everything that makes their superiority in the present day.”
- ^ Ismajli 2015, pp. 290, 296–298.
- ^ I.I. Russu, Obârșia tracică a românilor și albanezilor. Clarificări comparativ-istorice șietnologice. Der thrakische Ursprung der Rumänen und Albanesen. Komparativ-historische und ethnologische Klärungen. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia 1995.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 298.
- ^ Ismajli 2015, pp. 341–342.
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