Original six frigates of the United States Navy
USS Constitution, the last of the original six frigates of the United States Navy still in commission
| |
Class overview | |
---|---|
Operators | United States Navy |
Built | 1794–1800 |
In service | 1794–1881 |
In commission | 1797–present |
Planned | 6 |
Completed | 6 |
Active | 1 |
Lost | 2 |
Retired | 3 |
General characteristics (Constitution, President, United States) | |
Class and type | 44-gun frigate[2] |
Tonnage | 1,576[1] |
Displacement | 2,200 tons[1] |
Length |
|
Beam | 43 ft 6 in (13.26 m)[2] |
Draft |
|
Depth of hold | 14 ft 3 in (4.34 m)[3] |
Complement | 450 officers and enlisted, including 55 Marines and 30 boys[2] |
General characteristics (Congress and Constellation) | |
Class and type | 38-gun frigate[4] |
Tonnage | 1,265 tons[4] |
Length | 164 ft (50 m) between perpendiculars[4] |
Beam | 41.0 ft (12.5 m)[4] |
Complement | 340 officers and enlisted[4] |
General characteristics (Chesapeake) | |
Class and type | 38-gun frigate[5] |
Tonnage | 1,244[5] |
Length | 152.8 ft (46.6 m) between perpendiculars[5] |
Beam | 41.3 ft (12.6 m)[5] |
Draft | 20 ft (6.1 m)[5] |
Depth of hold | 13.9 ft (4.2 m)[6] |
Complement | 340 officers and enlisted[5] |
The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82 (equivalent to $19,833,259.52 in 2024). These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the French or British navies, yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.
Purpose
After the
The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain were a better alternative.[18][19]
In 1793, Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year, eleven American merchant ships had been captured.[12] This, combined with the actions of Britain, finally led President Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.[20][21]
On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships.[22][23] To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.[24][25]
The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on March 19.[24][25] President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each.[26] It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 (equivalent to $14,148,000 in 2023[27]) to finance the work.[28][29]
Design and preparations
With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design.[30] Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble.[31] Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.[32][33]
The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act.[30] The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line.[34][35][36] The design was unusual for the time, being deep,[37] long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies' frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.[32]
Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mold loft with William Doughty.[38]
After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's half model was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding", the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood.[39] Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport.[citation needed] An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.
Construction
Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:[32][40]
Ship | Site | Guns[a] | Naval constructor | Superintendent | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chesapeake | Gosport, Virginia | 38 | Josiah Fox | Richard Dale | [42] |
Constitution | Boston, Massachusetts | 44 | George Claghorn | Samuel Nicholson | [42] |
President | New York, New York | 44 | Christian Bergh | Silas Talbot | [43] |
United States | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | 44 | Joshua Humphreys | John Barry | [42] |
Congress | Kittery, Maine | 38 | James Hackett | James Sever | [42] |
Constellation | Baltimore, Maryland | 38 | David Stodder | Thomas Truxtun | [42] |
Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily
Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli, which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates.[51] The three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were chosen.[52] Construction of Chesapeake, Congress, and President was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.[53]
The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797. Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War James McHenry requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates' construction, but did not allow them to be manned and put to sea.[54] United States launched on May 10,[55] Constellation on September 7,[4] and Constitution on October 21.[3] Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France because of their disagreement over the Jay Treaty prompted Congress to debate authorizing completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional $200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated the requested funds.[56]
When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather.[57] Additional inquiries prior to McHenry's report revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.[58]
Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President John Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States. As Constellation, Constitution and United States were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put to sea for this undeclared Quasi-War was the sloop Ganges with Richard Dale in command.[59][60] Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining three frigates; Congress launched on August 15, 1799,[61] Chesapeake on December 2,[5] and President on April 10, 1800.[62][63][64]
Armament
The 44-gun ships sometimes carried over 50 guns, and Constitution was known to carry 24-pounder guns in her main battery instead of the normal 18-pounders most frigates carried.[2]
The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s were re-rated as 38s.[65] Their "ratings" by number of guns were meant only as an approximation.[66]
Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, as modern navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.[67]
Commonly, twelve men and a
The marine detachment on board provided the
Frigates
The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F until March 1795, when Secretary of War, Timothy Pickering, prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships (in addition to those later used, the list also included Defender, Fortitude, Perseverance, Protector, and Liberty). President Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: Constitution, United States, President, and Congress, each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together with Constellation which derived from the blazon of the Arms of the United States, "13 stars, forming a constellation." The sixth frigate, Chesapeake, remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, designated her a namesake of the Chesapeake Bay, ignoring the previous Constitutional naming protocol.[5][70][71]
United States
United States was built in Philadelphia, launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on July 11, 1797. On October 25, 1812, United States fought and captured the frigate HMS Macedonian. United States was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and put in reserve at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and commissioned into the Confederate States Navy, which later scuttled the ship. In 1862, Union forces raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.
Constellation
Constitution
Constitution, rated at 44 guns, launched from Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston on October 21, 1797, by naval constructor George Claghorn and Captain Samuel Nicholson.[44] During the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship Niger,[73] and was later involved in battling the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.
She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured numerous merchant ships and defeated four British
The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world,
Chesapeake
When construction finished on Chesapeake, she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates.[78] A length of 152.8 ft (46.6 m) between perpendiculars and 41.3 ft (12.6 m) of beam contrasted with the other two 36-gun frigates, Congress and Constellation, which were built to 164 ft (50 m) in length and 41 ft (12 m) of beam.[4][61][79]
On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the
Congress
Congress—rated at 38 guns—was launched on August 15, 1799, from Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, under the command of Captain James Sever. Beginning her maiden voyage on January 6, 1800, she headed for the East Indies,[80] but soon after her masts were destroyed in a gale, forcing her return to port; repairs took six months. She sailed again on July 26 for the West Indies and made uneventful patrols through April 1801.[81][82]
Under the command of
Under the command of Captain John Smith during the
In 1815 she returned to active service for the
President
Minor alterations were made to President based on experience gained in constructing the 44-gun ships Constitution and United States. Humphreys instructed President's naval contractor to raise the
Rated at 44 guns, President was the last frigate to be completed, launching from New York City on April 10, 1800, with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command. She departed for patrols during the Quasi-War on August 5 and recaptured several American merchant ships. After the peace treaty, she returned to the United States in March 1801.[95]
In May 1801 she sailed under the command of
On May 16, 1811, in what became known as the Little Belt affair, President, under the command of Captain John Rodgers, mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt as the frigate HMS Guerriere while searching for impressed American sailors taken by the Royal Navy. Though the sequence of events is disputed on both sides, both ships discharged cannon for several minutes before Rodgers determined that Little Belt was a much smaller ship than Guerriere. Little Belt suffered serious damage and thirty-one killed or wounded in the exchange. Rodgers offered assistance to Little Belt's Captain Arthur Bingham, but he declined and sailed off for Halifax, Nova Scotia. The U.S. and Royal Navy investigations each determined the other ship to be responsible for the attack, increasing tensions leading up to the War of 1812.[101][102][103]
Still under the command of John Rodgers, President made three extended cruises during the War of 1812 in company with Congress and briefly with United States. President encountered HMS Belvidera and engaged in a fight from which Belvidera eventually escaped.[104][105] Pursuing a fleet of merchant ships, President sailed to within a day's journey of the English Channel before returning to Boston, capturing seven merchant ships en route.[106][107] Her second cruise began with a pursuit of HMS Nymphe and HMS Galatea, but she failed to overtake either of them. Later prizes were the packet ship Swallow, carrying a large amount of currency, and eight other merchant ships. President returned on December 31.[108][109] Her third cruise of the war began April 30, 1813, with her pursuit of HMS Curlew, but she once again lost a race to overtake an enemy ship. President spent five months at sea, capturing several merchant ships, but the only highlight was the capture of HMS Highflyer in late September.[110][111]
After the ship spent a year blockaded in port,
Notes
- ^ Chesapeake's altered construction led to her re-rating as a 36-gun ship. Because of their larger dimensions over Chesapeake, Congress and Constellation were re-rated to 38s.[41]
- ^ HMS Victory is the oldest commissioned vessel by three decades; however, Victory has been in permanent dry dock since 1922.[75]
- This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.
References
- ^ a b c Hollis (1900), p. 39.
- ^ a b c d e "US Navy Fact File – Constitution". United States Navy. July 7, 2009. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2011.
- ^ a b "Constitution". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Constellation". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Chesapeake". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ Chapelle (1949), p. 535.
- ^ Daughan (2008), p. 240.
- ^ Fowler (1984), p. 8.
- ^ a b Daughan (2008), p. 242.
- ^ Fowler (1984), pp. 6–7.
- ^ Fowler (1984), pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b Allen (1905), p. 15.
- ^ Fowler (1984), p. 9.
- ^ Smelser (1959), p. 8.
- ^ Allen (1905), p. 13.
- ^ Daughan (2008), pp. 276–277.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 48–51.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 5–20.
- ^ Allen (1909), p. 42.
- ^ Daughan (2008), pp. 278–279.
- ^ Fowler (1984), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Daughan (2008), p. 279.
- ^ Fowler (1984), p. 18.
- ^ a b Daughan (2008), pp. 279–281.
- ^ a b Smelser (1959), p. 57.
- ^ Daughan (2008), p. 281.
- ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
- ^ An Act to provide a Naval Armament. 1 Stat. 350 (1794). Library of Congress. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ Allen (1905), p. 49.
- ^ a b Fowler (1984), p. 20.
- ^ Toll, Ian W. (2006). Six Frigates. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. p. 45.
- ^ a b c Smelser (1959), pp. 72–73.
- ^ Fowler (1984), p. 21.
- ^ Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.
- ^ Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.
- ^ Allen (1909), pp. 42–45.
- OCLC 43456786.
- ^ Humphreys (1916), p. 401.
- ^ Wood (1981), pp. 88–90.
- ^ Fowler (1984), p. 24.
- ^ Beach (1986), p. 32.
- ^ a b c d e "Navy History: Federal/Quasi War". Naval History & Heritage Command. Archived from the original on February 6, 1997. Retrieved September 22, 2019.
- ^ a b Canney, Donald (2001), Sailing Warships of the US Navy, p. 38.
- ^ a b c Hollis (1900), p. 48.
- ^ Wood (1981), p. 4.
- ^ Wood (1981), p. 3.
- ^ Smelser (1959), p. 74.
- ^ Wood (1981), pp. 25–28.
- ^ Wood (1981), pp. 29–31.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 77–78.
- ^ Daughan (2008), p. 294.
- ^ Smelser (1959), p. 77.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 90–91, 99.
- ^ "United States". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 102, 110, 116–118.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 127, 131–132.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 150–156.
- ^ Smelser (1959), pp. 160–166.
- ^ "Ganges". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ a b "Congress". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ "President". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command.
- ^ Daughan (2008), p. 315.
- ^ Smelser (1959), p. 193.
- ^ Chapelle (1949), p. 128.
- ^ Roosevelt (1882), chapter V.
- ^ Jennings (1966), pp. 17–19.
- ^ a b Reilly Jr., John C. (February 4, 2008). "The Constitution Gun Deck". Naval History & Heritage Command. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009. Retrieved April 9, 2010.
- ^ Jennings (1966), p. 224.
- ^ a b Beach (1986), p. 31.
- ^ Toll (2006), p. 61.
- David Taylor Research Center. Archived(PDF) from the original on October 11, 2016. Retrieved July 12, 2017.
- ^ Jennings (1966), p. 44.
- ^ Brown, Eric (October 21, 2009). "Hundreds Join Old Ironsides' Return to Sea for 212th Birthday". Navy News Service. Archived from the original on October 7, 2012.
- ^ "HMS Victory Service Life". HMS Victory website. Archived from the original on September 24, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
- )
- ^ Allen (1909), p. 56.
- ^ Toll (2006), p. 289.
- ^ Fowler (1984), pp. 21–22.
- ^ Toll (2006), p. 136.
- ^ Morris (1880), pp. 120–122.
- ^ Allen (1909), p. 221.
- ^ Toll (2006), pp. 224–227, 252, 282.
- ^ Allen (1905), pp. 199, 219–220, 268–269.
- ^ Cooper (1856), pp. 221–222.
- ^ Roosevelt (1883), pp. 72–74, 76–78, 106–107, 174–175.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 322, 325, 521.
- ^ Toll (2006), pp. 419–420.
- ^ Allen (1905), pp. 292–294.
- OCLC 3720201. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
- ^ Morris (1880), pp. 181–184, 190–191.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 2, pp. 20, 28.
- ^ Toll (2006), p. 474.
- ^ Toll (2006), p. 107.
- ^ Allen (1909), pp. 217, 221.
- ^ Allen (1905), pp. 92, 94–95, 98–100.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 228, 231–233.
- ^ Cooper (1856), p. 153.
- ^ Allen (1905), pp. 198–199, 218–223, 270.
- ^ Toll (2006), pp. 224–227, 250–251.
- ^ Cooper (1856), pp. 235–238.
- ^ Toll (2006), pp. 321–323.
- ^ Beach (1986), pp. 69–70.
- ^ Roosevelt (1883), pp. 73–76.
- ^ Cooper (1856), pp. 244–247.
- ^ Roosevelt (1883), p. 77.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 325–326.
- ^ Roosevelt (1883), pp. 106–107.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 426–427.
- ^ Roosevelt (1883), pp. 174–177.
- ^ Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 521–522.
- ^ The Naval Chronicle: Volume 33, January–July 1815: "When Pomone's boats boarded President, Decatur insisted on having his sword sent to the captain of the black ship (Endymion) which he had engaged, as he had struck to her alone––and when he ceased firing, he hoisted his light higher to indicate that he had struck. Notwithstanding this, in his official dispatch, he makes assertions of a contrary nature."
- ^ Andrew Lambert, The Challenge: Britain Against America in the Naval War of 1812, Faber and Faber (2012).
- ^ Winfield (2008), p. 124.
Bibliography
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- —— (1909). Our Naval War With France. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1202325.
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- Canney, Donald L. (2001). Sailing warships of the US Navy. Naval Institute Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-55750-990-1.
- OCLC 1471717.
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- Daughan, George C. (2008). If By Sea: The Forging of the American Navy – From the American Revolution to the War of 1812. New York: Basic Books. OCLC 190876973.
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- Hollis, Ira N. (1900). The Frigate Constitution; The Central Figure of the Navy Under Sail. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 2350400.
- Humphreys, Henry H. (1916). "Who Built the First United States Navy?". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Vol. XL, no. 4. Philadelphia: OCLC 1762062.
- Jennings, John (1966). Tattered Ensign The Story of America's Most Famous Fighting Frigate, U.S.S. Constitution. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. OCLC 1291484.
- Maclay, Edgar Stanton; Smith, Roy Campbell (1898) [1893]. A History of the United States Navy, from 1775 to 1898. Vol. 1 (New ed.). New York: D. Appleton. OCLC 609036.
- —— (1898) [1893]. A History of the United States Navy, from 1775 to 1898. Vol. 2 (New ed.). New York: D. Appleton. OCLC 609036.
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- Smelser, Marshall (1959). The Congress Founds the Navy, 1787–1798. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. OCLC 422274.
- OCLC 70291925.
- Wood, Virginia Steele (1981). Live Oaking: Southern Timber for Tall Ships. Boston: Northeastern University Press. OCLC 7795440.
Further reading
- OCLC 44468774.
- Humphreys, Assheton Y. (2000). Tyrone G. Martin (ed.). The USS Constitution's Finest Fight: The Journal of Acting Chaplain Assheton Humphreys, US Navy. Mount Pleasant: Nautical & Aviation Publishing. OCLC 44632941.
- Poolman, Kenneth (1962). Guns Off Cape Ann; The Story of the Shannon and the Chesapeake. Chicago: Rand McNally. OCLC 1384754.
- Wachtel, Roger (2003). Old Ironsides (Elementary and Junior High School). New York: OCLC 50035427.