Ostrogoths
Ostrogoths | |
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People | |
Ethnicity | Germanic |
Location | Balkans |
Language | Germanic |
The Ostrogoths (
Theoderic's family, the
Following the death of Theodoric, there was a period of instability, eventually tempting the
As with other Gothic groups, the history of the peoples who made them up before they reached the Roman Balkans is difficult to reconstruct in detail. However, the Ostrogoths are associated with the earlier Greuthungi. The Ostrogoths themselves were commonly referred to simply as Goths even in the 5th century. However, before then they were referred to once, in a poem by Claudian which associates them with a group of Greuthungi, settled as a military unit in Phrygia. The 6th century historian of the Goths Jordanes also equated the Ostrogoths of his time to the Goths ruled by King Ermanaric in the 4th century, who the Roman writer Ammianus Marcellinus had called Greuthungi, and described as living between the Dniester and Don rivers. These Greuthungi Goths were attacked by Huns and Alans from the east, and it was reportedly for this reason that large groups of Goths moved into the Roman Empire, while others became subservient to the Huns.
Goths
The Ostrogoths were one of several peoples referred to more generally as Goths. The Goths appear in Roman records starting in the third century, in the regions north of the
The Ostrogoths, not mentioned until later, are associated with the Greuthungi who lived further east. The dividing line between the Tervingi and the Greuthungi, was reported by Ammianus to be the
Gothic language
The Ostrogoths in Italy used a Gothic language which had both spoken and written forms, and which is best attested today in the surviving translation of the Bible by
Etymology
The first part of the word "Ostrogoth" comes from a Germanic root *auster- meaning 'eastern'. According to the proposal of Wolfram, this was originally a boastful tribal name meaning "Goths of the rising sun", or "Goths glorified by the rising sun".[8][b] By the 6th century, however, Jordanes, for example, believed that the Visigoths and Ostrogoths were two contrasting names simply meaning western and eastern Goths.[4][9]
History
The Greuthungi and Ostrogothi before the Huns
The nature of the divisions of the Goths before the arrival of the Huns is uncertain, but throughout all their history the Ostrogoths are only mentioned by that name very rarely, and normally in very uncertain contexts. Among other Gothic group names, however, they are associated with the Greuthungi. Scholarly opinions are divided about this connection. Historian Herwig Wolfram sees these as two names for one people as will be discussed below. Peter Heather, in contrast, has written that:
Ostrogoths in the sense of the group led by Theodoric to Italy stand at the end of complex processes of fragmentation and unification involving a variety of groups—mostly but not solely Gothic it seems—and the better, more contemporary, evidence argues against the implication derived from Jordanes that Ostrogoths are Greuthungi by another name.[10]
Some historians go much further than Heather, questioning whether we can assume any single ethnicity, even Gothic, which united the Ostrogoths before they were politically united by the Amal clan.[c]
One dubious early mention of the Ostrogoths is found in the much later-written Historia Augusta, but it distinguishes the Ostrogoths and Greuthungi. In the article for Emperor
The first record of a Gothic sub-group acting in its own name, specifically the
The Ostrogoths were first definitely mentioned more than one hundred years later than the Tervingi in 399, and this is the only certain mention of this name at all before the Amals created their kingdom of Italy. A poem by Claudian describes Ostrogoths who are mixed with Greuthungi and settled in Phrygia together as a disgruntled barbarian military force, who had once fought against Rome, but were now supposed to fight for it. Claudian only uses the term Ostrogoth once in the long poem, but in other references to this same group he more often calls them Greuthungi or "Getic" (an older word used poetically for Goths in this period). These Goths came to be led into rebellion by Tribigild, a Roman general of Gothic background. Much later Zosimus also described Tribigild and his rebellion against the eunuch consul Eutropius. Gainas, the aggrieved Gothic general sent to fight Tribigild, openly joined forces with him after the death of Eutropius. Zosimus believed that was conspiracy between the two Goths from the beginning.[d] It is generally believed by historians that this Phrygian settlement of Greuthingi, referred to as including Ostrogoths, were part of the Greuthungi-led force led by Odotheus in 386, and not the Greuthungi who had entered the empire earlier, in 376 under Alatheus and Saphrax.[14][15]
Starting with the 6th century writer Jordanes, whose Getica is a history of the Ostrogothic Amal dynasty, there is a tradition of simply equating the Greuthungi with the Ostrogothi.[16] Jordanes does not mention the Greuthungi at all by that name, but he identified the Ostrogothic kings of Italy, the Amal dynasty, as the heirs and descendants of king Ermanaric. Ermanaric was described by Roman soldier and historian Ammianus Marcellinus as a king of the Greuthungi, however, the family succession described by the two classical authors is completely different, and Ammianus is considered to be the more reliable source.[e] Jordanes also specified that around 250 (the time of Emperor Philip the Arab who reigned 244–249) the Ostrogoths were ruled by a king called Ostrogotha and they either derived their name from this "father of the Ostrogoths", or else the Ostrogoths and Visigoths got these names because they meant eastern and western Goths.[19]
Modern historians agree that Jordanes is unreliable, especially for events long before his time, but some historians such as Herwig Wolfram defend the equation of the Greuthungi and Ostrogoths. Wolfram follows the position of
In any case, the older terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire. The term "Visigoth" was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, differentiating between "western Goths" and "eastern Goths" respectively.[24] The western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians, where political realities were more complex.[25] Furthermore, Cassiodorus used the term "Goths" to refer only to the Ostrogoths, whom he served, and reserved the geographical term "Visigoths" for the Gallo-Hispanic Goths. This usage, however, was adopted by the Visigoths themselves in their communications with the Byzantine Empire and was in use in the seventh century.[25]
Other names for the Goths abounded. A "Germanic" Byzantine or Italian author referred to one of the two peoples as the Valagothi, meaning "Roman [
Hunnic invasions and the Amals
In the late 4th century, the rise of the
The Amal-led Ostrogothic kingdom began to coalesce around the leadership of the Amal dynasty who had fought under Attila, and later settled in Pannonia. The second major component of the Amal kingdom's population were the Thracian Goths. This occurred around 483/484.[29][30]
5th-century Pannonian Ostrogoths
The Pannonian Ostrogoths had fought alongside both Alans and Huns.
The recorded history of the Ostrogoths as a political entity thus begins with their independence from the remains of the Hunnic Empire following the death of
These Amal-led Goths apparently first settled in the Pannonian area of
Theodemir and Theoderic moved their Goths around the Balkans, while in the meantime, the Thracian Goths were the main focus of Gothic power. For some time they held a part of Macedonia, controlling part of the
5th-century Thracian Goths
The 5th century Thracian Goths, according to Peter Heather, had probably become unified only in about the 460s, although they probably lived in the area since the 420s when a group of Goths under Hunnic influence already in Pannonia were detached and settled there.[44] Wolfram has proposed that Theoderic Strabo was an Amal, whose father had split with Theoderic's branch only as recently as the time of the Battle of Nadao.[45]
They formed a military force which was loyal to
With the death of
Theodoric the Great and the Thracians
About 476, Zeno, having removed support from Theoderic Strabo, started to give important honours to Theoderic, the son of Theodemir. He was adopted as a "son in arms", named as a friend of the emperor, and given the status of patricius and commander-in-chief. His kingdom, now based on the
Between 479 and 481, it was the Thracian Goths under Theoderic Strabo who kept the Romans occupied, but in 481 Strabo died, when he fell from his horse and was impaled on a lance. His son Recitac was unable to retain Gothic support and was killed in 484 under orders from Theoderic the Amal, who united the two Gothic groups. Zeno was forced to conclude a treaty and Theoderic the Amal was named consul in 484. Hostilities between Theoderic the Amal's Goths and the Eastern Roman Empire began again by 487.[51]
Kingdom in Italy
History of Italy |
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Italy portal |
The greatest of all Ostrogothic rulers, the future
Theodoric sought to revive Roman culture and government and in doing so, profited the Italian people.
The Ostrogothic dominion was once again as far-reaching and splendid as it was in the time of Hermanaric; however, it was now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was at once king of the Goths and successor, though without any imperial titles, of the Western Roman emperors. The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common sovereign of both.[54] Due to his ability to foster and leverage relations among the various Germanic kingdoms, the Byzantines began to fear Theodoric's power, which led to an alliance between the Byzantine emperor and the Frankish king, Clovis I, a pact designed to counteract and ultimately overthrow the Ostrogoths. In some ways Theodoric may have been overly accommodating to both the Romans and other Gothic people as he placated Catholics and Arian Christians alike. Historian Herwig Wolfram suggests that Theodoric's efforts in trying to appease Latin and barbarian cultures in kind brought about the collapse of Ostrogothic predominance and also resulted in the "end of Italy as the heartland of late antiquity."[62] All the years of creating a protective perimeter around Italy were broken down by the Franco-Byzantine coalition. Theodoric was able to temporarily salvage some of his realm with the assistance of the Thuringians.[63] Realizing that the Franks were the most significant threat to the Visigothic empire as well, Alaric II, (who was the son-in-law of Theodoric) enlisted the aid of the Burgundians and fought against the Franks at the urging of the magnates of his tribe, but this choice proved an error and he allegedly met his end at the hand of the Frankish king, Clovis.[64]
A time of confusion followed the death of Alaric II who was slain during the Battle of Vouillé. The Ostrogothic king Theodoric stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric,[65] and preserved for him all his Iberian and a fragment of his Gallic dominion. Toulouse passed to the Franks but the Goths kept Narbonne and its district and Septimania, which was the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, keeping the name of Gothia for many years.[66] Theodoric claimed a kind of protectorate over a large part of Italy and his Goths were embraced by the Roman population as Rome's defenders and part of its victorious army, while Theodoric much fanfare was made of his alleged "royal ancestry" which favorably cast his clan "on par with an imperial dynasty."[67] Romans were in some ways "reinvogorated" by these new Gothic warriors as "guardians of Romanitas" who, along with their Italo-Roman neighbors created a new "Gothic aegis" for the western empire, while those outside of Theodoric's order were made into veritable "barbarians".[68]
From 508 to 511 under Theodoric's command, the Ostrogoths marched on Gaul as the Vandal king of Carthage and Clovis made concerted efforts to weaken his hold on the Visigoths.[69] On the death of Theodoric in 526, the eastern and western Goths were once again divided.[54][70] By the late 6th century, the Ostrogoths lost their political identity and assimilated into other Germanic tribes.[61]
The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up, in his name and in the names of his successors, by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than garrisons.[71] Meanwhile, the Frankish king Clovis fought protracted wars against various enemies while consolidating his rule, forming the embryonic stages of what would eventually become Medieval Europe.[72]
War with Byzantium (535–554)
Absent the unifying presence of Theodoric, the Ostrogoths and Visigoths were unable to consolidate their realms despite their common Germanic kinship. The few instances where they acted together after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the Visigothic kingdom in Iberia and Septimania. Theodoric's grandson
The weakness of the Ostrogothic position in Italy now showed itself, particularly when Eastern Roman Emperor
With the attack on Ravenna, Witiges and his men were trapped in the Ostrogothic capital. Belisarius proved more capable at
As soon as Belisarius was gone, the remaining Ostrogoths elected a new king named Totila. Under the brilliant command of Totila, the Goths were able to reassert themselves to a degree. For a period of nearly ten years, control for Italy became a seesaw battle between Byzantine and Ostrogothic forces.[85] Totila eventually recaptured all of northern Italy and even drove the Byzantines out of Rome, thereby affording him the opportunity to take political control of the city, partly by executing the Roman senatorial order. Many of them fled eastwards for Constantinople.[86]
By 550 Justinian was able to put together an enormous force, an assembly designed to recover his losses and subdue any Gothic resistance. In 551, the Roman navy destroyed Totila's fleet and in 552 an overwhelming Byzantine force under
Nevertheless, according to Roman historian
Culture
Surviving Gothic writings in the
Amid Gothic histories that remain, besides that of the frequently quoted Jordanes, there is the Gothic history of
Jordanes named a people called the Ostrogoths (Ostrogothae) in a list of many peoples living on the large island of "Scandza", north of the mouth of the
On the other hand, scholars have come to no consensus about when the list was made, and by whom, nor how to interpret most of the names in the list. Arne Søby Christensen, in his detailed analysis lists three possibilities:[95]
- that Jordanes believed some Ostrogoths had emigrated north, or...
- that a similar name "Eastern Goths" had been coined in Scandinavia, where there were a people with the related name, the Gauts, or...
- that a source of Jordanes, for example Cassiodorus, had created this form of the name, perhaps having heard of the Gauts.
It has been pointed out by Walter Goffart that Jordanes (V.38) also digresses specially to criticize stories going around Constantinople, that the Goths had once been slaves in Britain or another northern island, and had been freed for the price of a nag. Goffart argues that Jordanes likely rejected the idea that the Goths should be simply sent north to their alleged land of origin. Goffart points out that Procopius—a contemporary of Jordanes—reports that Belisarius offered Britain to the Ostrogoths (Gothic Wars, VI, 6); Goffart also suggests this may be connected to the stories mentioned by Jordanes.[96][97]
Fundamental to the question of the Scandza list, which mentions the Ostrogothae, there has been much scholarly discussion about why Jordanes claimed that Scandinavia was a "womb of the nations",[98] and the point of origin to not only the Goths but also many other northern barbarian peoples. Before Jordanes, there was already a Judaeo-Christian tradition equating the Goths and other "Scythian" peoples with the descendants of Gog and Magog, who readers of the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation might otherwise associate with distant islands.[99]
Ostrogothic rulers
Amal dynasty
- Valamir r. 447 – c. 465 succeeded by his brother...
- Theodemir r. c. 465 – 475 succeeded by his son...
- Theodoric the Great r. 475–526 succeeded by his grandson...
- Athalaric r. 526–534 succeeded by his mother...
- Queen Amalasuntha, r. 534–535 the daughter of Theodoric, succeeded by her first cousin...
- Theodahad r. 535–536 the son of Theodoric's sister.
Later kings
- Witigesr. 536–540
- Ildibad r. 540–541
- Eraric r. 541
- Totila (also Baduila) r. 541–552
- Theia (also Teia(s), Teja) r. 552–553
See also
- List of Germanic tribes
- Crimean Goths
- Oium
- Wielbark culture
References
Notes
- ^ Wolfram cites Moritz Schönfeld's (1911) work, Wörterbuch der altgermanischen personen- und Völkernamen as his principal naming source. See: p. 39. According to linguist Václav Blažek, this ethnonym shows several written forms in mediaeval records: Austrogoti; Austorgoti; Obstrogoti; Ostrogothi; Ostrogotus; Histrogotus; (H)ostrogothae (or Hostrogothae, Hostrogothi, Hostrogothae, Hostrogothae, Hostrogothi, Ostrogothi, Hostrogothae, Ostrogothi and Ostrogothi - these from the same record, Jordanes's Getica), and Ostrogotthi. See: Blažek, Václav. "Visigothae versus Ostrogothae". In: Graeco-Latina Brunensia vol. 17, iss. 2. 2012. pp. 17–18.
- ^ Heather (2007) explains Heather's position in contrast to those of Amory (1997). Also see Kulikowski (2002).
- ^ Claudian, Against Eutropius, 2.141; Zosimus, New History, Book 5. For commentary see Wolfram (1988, pp. 24, 387fn52), Christensen (2002, pp. 216–217) and Cameron (1993) . Note Wolfram describes this as a poem to 392, though as Christensen and Cameron et al. note, it was written after the death of Eutropius the consul (died 399). On the dating of Claudian's poem see Long (1996, ch.5).
- ^ Christensen summarizes the field's position: "There has never been any doubt that of these two conflicting accounts, the one by Ammianus Marcellinus was to be preferred". Christensen especially cites Peter Heather.[17][18]
- ^ See: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cassiodorus/varia2.shtml Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator, Variae, Lib. II., XLI. Luduin regi Francorum Theodericus rex
- ^ De Bello Gothico IV 32, pp. 241–245; this reference stems from the pen of the Byzantine historian, Procopius, who accompanied Justinian's leading general, Belisarius, on his exploits between 527 and 540. This included the campaigns against the Ostrogoths, which is the subject of De Bello Gothico.
- ^ It has even been suggested that Roduulf is the same king of that name who is known from other sources to have been king of the Danube Heruli until he was defeated by the Lombards some time between 494 and 508. Procopius and Paul the Deacon mention him, and Jordanes mentions a king of the Heruli in this period who was adopted as a son in arms by Theoderic, without naming him. Strikingly, Procopius mentions that some of the Heruli nobility migrated to Scandinavia after the defeat of Roduulf, and some of these later returned to the Balkan area (Gothic Wars, VI, 14–15), while in his Scandza list, Jordanes mentions that Heruli had lived near the Dani, like the Ostrogothae he mentions, but had been forced to leave.
Citations
- ^ Heather 2009, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Heather 2009, pp. 116, 127–128.
- ^ Heather 2009, pp. 115–117.
- ^ a b c Wolfram 1988, p. 24.
- ^ Heather 2009, pp. 151–153.
- ^ Dalby 1999, p. 229.
- ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 572.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 25, 387 fn49, 388 fn58.
- ^ Christensen 2002, p. 206.
- ^ Heather 2007, p. 404.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 201–205.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 24, fn52.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini XI 17.1 (dated 291)
- ^ a b Heather 1988, p. 156.
- ^ a b Christensen 2002, p. 214.
- ^ Heather 1996, pp. 52–57, 300–301.
- ^ Heather 1989.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 141–157.
- ^ Jordanes 1915, pp. 87–88 [24.130–131].
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn58.
- ^ a b Wolfram 1988, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn57.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 25.
- ^ a b c d Wolfram 1988, p. 26.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 389, fn67.
- ^ Bury 2000, p. 55.
- ^ Heather 1999.
- ^ Heather 2007, p. 73.
- ^ Heather 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Todd 1999, p. 177.
- ^ Kim 2013, pp. 75, 77.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 77.
- ^ Jordanes 1915, p. 107 [38.199–200].
- ^ Heather 2009, p. 222.
- ^ Heather 2007, pp. 46–47, 72–73.
- ^ Burns 1984, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Todd 1999, p. 178.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 260–261.
- ^ Heather 2003, p. 86.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 188, 268.
- ^ Nicholson 2018, p. 378.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Heather 2003, pp. 88, 91.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 32, 260.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 268.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 269.
- ^ a b Wolfram 1988, p. 270.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 271–272.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 271–274.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 276–278.
- ^ Backman 2008, p. 68.
- ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 575.
- ^ a b c De Puy 1899, p. 2865.
- ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 338.
- ^ Frassetto 2003, pp. 338–339.
- ^ Cantor 1994, p. 109.
- ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 665.
- ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 575–576.
- ^ Bury 2000, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 576.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 332.
- ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 218–221.
- ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 155.
- ^ Larned 1895, p. 134.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 230.
- ^ Arnold 2014, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Arnold 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 220.
- ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 225.
- ^ De Puy 1899, p. 2,865.
- ^ Collins 1999, pp. 116–137.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 334.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 332–333, 337–340.
- ^ a b c Wallace-Hadrill 2004, p. 36.
- ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 339.
- ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 500–501.
- ^ Halsall 2007, p. 501.
- ^ Oman 1902, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 502–503.
- ^ Oman 1902, p. 91.
- ^ Halsall 2007, p. 503.
- ^ Bauer 2010, p. 208.
- ^ Thompson 1982, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Bauer 2010, p. 210.
- ^ a b Halsall 2007, p. 504.
- ^ Oman 1902, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Cantor 1994, p. 105–107.
- ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 505–512.
- ^ Halsall 2007, p. 512.
- ^ a b Freeman 1911, p. 275.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 267–268.
- ^ Christensen 2002, p. 270.
- ^ Ghosh 2015, p. 49.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 250–299.
- ^ Ghosh 2015, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 254, 270.
- ^ Jordanes 1915, p. 57 [4.25].
- ^ Christensen 2002, pp. 243–252.
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{{citation}}
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External links
- Media related to Ostrogoths at Wikimedia Commons