Ostrogothic Kingdom
Kingdom of Italy Regnum Italiae | |||||||||||||||||||
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469 (493 in Italy)–553 | |||||||||||||||||||
Coin depicting Theodoric the Great (475–526)
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Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||
King | |||||||||||||||||||
• 493–526 | Theodoric (first) | ||||||||||||||||||
• 552–553 | Teia (last) | ||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Late Antiquity | ||||||||||||||||||
• Battles of Isonzo and Verona | 489 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Fall of Ravenna | 469 (493 in Italy) | ||||||||||||||||||
• Start of Gothic War | 535 | ||||||||||||||||||
553 | |||||||||||||||||||
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History of Italy |
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Italy portal |
The Ostrogothic Kingdom, officially the Kingdom of Italy (
In Italy, the Ostrogoths led by
Starting in 535, the
History
Background
Ostrogoths
The
In previous years, a large number of Goths, first under Aspar and then under Theodoric Strabo, had entered service in the Roman army and were a significant political and military power in the court of Constantinople. The period 477-483 saw a complex three-way struggle among Theodoric the Amal, who had succeeded his father in 474, Theodoric Strabo, and the new Eastern Emperor Zeno. In this conflict, alliances shifted regularly, and large parts of the Balkans were devastated by it.[8]
In the end, after Strabo's death in 481, Zeno came to terms with Theodoric. Parts of Moesia and Dacia ripensis were ceded to the Goths, and Theodoric was named magister militum praesentalis and consul for 484.[8] Barely a year later, Theodoric and Zeno fell out, and again Theodoric's Goths ravaged Thrace. It was then that the thought occurred to Zeno and his advisors to direct Theodoric against another troublesome neighbour of the Empire - the Italian kingdom of Odoacer.
Odoacer's kingdom (476–493)
In 476, Odoacer, leader of the foederati in the West, had staged a coup against the rebellious magister militum Orestes, who was seeking to have his son Romulus Augustulus recognized as Western Emperor in place of Emperor Julius Nepos. Orestes had reneged on the promise of land in Italy for Odoacer's troops, a pledge made to ensure their neutrality in his attack on Nepos. After executing Orestes and putting the teenage usurper in internal exile, Odoacer paid nominal allegiance to Nepos (now in Dalmatia) while effectively operating autonomously, having been raised to the rank of patrician by Zeno. Odoacer retained the Roman administrative system, cooperated actively with the Roman Senate, and his rule was efficient and successful. He evicted the Vandals from Sicily in 477, and in 480 he occupied Dalmatia after the murder of Julius Nepos.[9][10]
Conquest of Italy by the Goths (488–493)
An agreement was reached between Zeno and Theodoric, stipulating that Theodoric, if victorious, was to rule in Italy as the emperor's representative.[11] Theodoric with his people set out from Moesia in the autumn of 488, passed through Dalmatia and crossed the Julian Alps into Italy in late August 489. The first confrontation with the army of Odoacer was at the river Isonzo (the battle of Isonzo) on August 28. Odoacer was defeated and withdrew towards Verona, where a month later another battle was fought, resulting in a bloody, but crushing, Gothic victory.[12]
Odoacer fled to his capital at
Theodoric kills Odoacer (493)
The Goths now turned to besiege Ravenna, but since they lacked a fleet and the city could be resupplied by sea, the siege could be endured almost indefinitely, despite privations. It was not until 492 that Theodoric was able to procure a fleet and capture Ravenna's harbours, thus entirely cutting off communication with the outside world. The effects of this appeared six months later, when, with the mediation of the city's bishop, negotiations started between the two parties.[13]
An agreement was reached on 25 February 493, whereby the two should divide Italy between them. A banquet was organised in order to celebrate this treaty. It was at this banquet, on March 15, that Theodoric, after making a toast, killed Odoacer with his own hands. A general massacre of Odoacer's soldiers and supporters followed. Theodoric and his Goths were now masters of Italy.[13]
Reign of Theodoric the Great (493–526)
Theodoric's rule
"... Theodoric was a man of great distinction and of good-will towards all men, and he ruled for thirty-three years. Under his rule, Italy for thirty years enjoyed such good fortune that his successors also inherited peace. For whatever he did was good. He so governed two races at the same time, Romans and Goths, that although he himself was of the Arian sect, he nevertheless made no assault on the Catholic religion; he gave games in the circus and the amphitheatre, so that even by the Romans he was called a Trajan or a Valentinian, whose times he took as a model; and by the Goths, because of his edict, in which he established justice, he was judged to be in all respects their best king." |
Anonymus Valesianus, Excerpta II 59-60 |
Like Odoacer, Theodoric was ostensibly a
The administrative machinery of Odoacer's kingdom, in essence that of the former Empire, was more or less retained by the Ostrogoths. According to the analysis of Jonathan J. Arnold, Theoderic presented himself - and was more or less accepted as - a Roman Emperor.[15] But despite this rhetoric, Italy had undergone significant structural changes in the fifth century, which required that Roman administrative traditions had to be adapted by Theoderic's court.[16] The Senate continued to function normally and was consulted on civil appointments, and the laws of the Empire were still recognized as ruling the Roman population, though Goths were ruled under their own traditional laws. Indeed, as a subordinate ruler, Theodoric did not possess the right to issue his own laws (leges) in the system of Roman law, but merely edicts (edicta), or clarifications on certain details.[14]
The continuity in administration is illustrated by the fact that several senior ministers of Odoacer, like Liberius and Cassiodorus the Elder, were retained in the new kingdom's top positions.[17] The close cooperation between Theodoric and the Roman elite began to break down in later years, especially after the healing of the ecclesiastical rift between Rome and Constantinople (see below), as leading senators conspired with the Emperor. This resulted in the arrest and execution of the magister officiorum Boethius and his father-in-law, Symmachus, in 524.[18]
On the other hand, the army and all military offices remained the exclusive preserve of the Goths. The Goths were settled mostly in northern Italy, and kept themselves largely apart from the Roman population, a tendency reinforced by their different faiths: the Goths were mostly Homoian Christians ('
Relations with the Germanic states of the West
It is in his foreign policy rather than domestic affairs that Theodoric appeared and acted as an independent ruler. By means of marriage alliances, he sought to establish a central position among the barbarian states of the West. As Jordanes states: "...there was no race left in the western realms which Theodoric had not befriended or brought into subjection during his lifetime."[23] This was in part meant as a defensive measure, and in part as a counterbalance to the influence of the Empire. His daughters were wedded to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund,[24] his sister Amalfrida married the Vandal king Thrasamund,[25] while he himself married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I.[26]
These policies were not always successful in maintaining peace: Theodoric found himself at war with Clovis when the latter attacked the Visigoth dominions in
Family bonds also served little with Sigismund, who as a staunch Chalcedonian Christian cultivated close ties to Constantinople. Theodoric perceived this as a threat and intended to campaign against him, but the Franks acted first and invaded Burgundy in 523, quickly subduing it. Theodoric could only react by expanding his domains in the Provence north of the river Durance up to the Isère.
The peace with the Vandals, secured in 500 with the marriage alliance with Thrasamund, and their common interests as Arian powers against Constantinople, collapsed after Thrasamund's death in 523. His successor Hilderic showed favour to the Nicaean Christians, and when Amalfrida protested, he had her and her entourage murdered. Theodoric was preparing an expedition against him when he died.[28]
Relations with the Empire
"It behoves us, most clement Emperor, to seek for peace, since there are no causes for anger between us. [...] Our royalty is an imitation of yours, modelled on your good purpose, a copy of the only Empire; and insofar as we follow you do we excel all other nations. Often you have exhorted me to love the senate, to accept cordially the laws of past emperors, to join together in one all the members of Italy. [...] There is moreover that noble sentiment, love for the city of Rome, from which two princes, both of whom govern in her name, should never be disjoined." |
Letter of Theodoric to Anastasius Cassiodorus, Variae I.1 |
Theodoric's relations with his nominal suzerain, the Eastern Roman Emperor, were always strained, for political as well as for religious reasons. Especially during the reign of Anastasius, these led to several collisions, none of which however escalated into general warfare. In 504-505, Theodoric's forces launched a campaign to recover Pannonia and the strategically important town of Sirmium, formerly parts of the praetorian prefecture of Italy, which were now occupied by the Gepids.[29]
The campaign was successful, but it also led to a brief conflict with imperial troops, where the Goths and their allies were victorious. Domestically, the
Thus, for a time, Theodoric could count on their support. The war between the Franks and Visigoths led to renewed friction between Theodoric and the Emperor, as Clovis successfully portrayed himself as the champion of the Western Church against the "heretical" Arian Goths, gaining the Emperor's support. This even led to the dispatch of a fleet by Anastasius in 508, which ravaged the coasts of Apulia.[29]
With the ascension of Justin I in 518, a more harmonious relationship seemed to be restored. Eutharic, Theodoric's son-in-law and designated successor, was appointed consul for the year 519, while in 522, to celebrate the healing of the Acacian schism, Justin allowed both consuls to be appointed by Theodoric.[30] Soon, however, renewed tension would result from Justin's anti-Arian legislation, and tensions grew between the Goths and the Senate, whose members, as Chalcedonians, now shifted their support to the Emperor.[31]
The suspicions of Theodoric were confirmed by the interception of compromising letters between leading senators and Constantinople, which led to the imprisonment and execution of Boethius in 524. Pope John I was sent to Constantinople to mediate on the Arians' behalf, and, although he achieved his mission, on his return he was imprisoned and died shortly after. These events further stirred popular sentiment against the Goths.[31]
Death of Theodoric and dynastic disputes (526–535)
After the death of Theodoric on 30 August 526, his achievements began to collapse. Since Eutharic had died in 523, Theodoric was succeeded by his infant grandson
This dangerous external climate was exacerbated by the regency's weak domestic position. Amalasuntha was Roman-educated and intended to continue her father's policies of conciliation between Goths and Romans. To that end, she actively courted the support of the Senate and the newly ascended Emperor Justinian I, even providing him with bases in Sicily during the Vandalic War. However, these ideas did not find much favour with the Gothic nobles, who in addition resented being ruled by a woman. They protested when she resolved to give her son a Roman education, preferring that Athalaric be raised as a warrior. She was forced to discharge his Roman tutors, but instead Athalaric turned to a life of dissipation and excess, which would send him to a premature death.[33]
"[Amalasuntha] feared she might be despised by the Goths on account of the weakness of her sex. So after much thought she decided [...] to summon her cousin Theodahad from Tuscany, where he led a retired life at home, and thus she established him on the throne. But he was unmindful of their kinship and, after a little time, had her taken from the palace at Ravenna to an island of the Bulsinian lake where he kept her in exile. After spending a very few days there in sorrow, she was strangled in the bath by his hirelings." |
Jordanes, Getica 306 |
Eventually, a conspiracy started among the Goths to overthrow her. Amalasuntha resolved to move against them, but as a precaution, she also made preparations to flee to Constantinople, and even wrote to Justinian asking for protection. In the event she managed to execute the three leading conspirators, and her position remained relatively secure until, in 533, Athalaric's health began to seriously decline.[34]
Amalasuntha then turned for support to her only relative, her cousin Theodahad, while at the same time sending ambassadors to Justinian and proposing to cede Italy to him. Justinian indeed sent an able agent of his, Peter of Thessalonica, to carry out the negotiations, but before he had even crossed into Italy, Athalaric had died (on 2 October 534), Amalasuntha had crowned Theodahad as king in an effort to secure his support, and he had deposed and imprisoned her. Theodahad, who was of a peaceful disposition, immediately sent envoys to announce his ascension to Justinian and to reassure him of Amalasuntha's safety.[34]
Justinian immediately reacted by offering his support to the deposed queen, but in early May 535, she was executed.[a] This crime served as a perfect pretext for Justinian, fresh from his forces' victory over the Vandals, to invade the Gothic realm in retaliation.[35] Theodahad tried to prevent the war, sending his envoys to Constantinople, but Justinian was already resolved to reclaim Italy. Only by renouncing his throne in the Empire's favour could Theodahad hope to avert war.
Gothic War and end of the Ostrogothic Kingdom (535–554)
The Gothic War between the
During the second phase (540/541–553), Gothic resistance was reinvigorated under
The war had its roots in the ambition of Justinian to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost to invading barbarian tribes in the previous century (the Migration Period). By the end of the conflict Italy was devastated and considerably depopulated. As a consequence, the victorious Byzantines found themselves unable to resist the invasion of the Lombards in 568, which resulted in the loss of large parts of the Italian peninsula.
List of kings
- Valamir –465
- Theodemir 470–475
- Theodoric the Great (Thiudoric) 489–526
- Athalaric (Atthalaric) 526–534
- Queen Amalasuintha 534–535
- Theodahad (Thiudahad) 534–536
- Witiges(Wittigeis) 536–540
- Ildibad (Hildibad) 540–541
- Eraric the Rugian (Heraric, Ariaric) 541
- Totila (Baduila) 541–552
- Teia (Theia, Teja) 552–553
Culture
Architecture
Because of the kingdom's short history, no fusion of the two peoples and their art was achieved. However, under the patronage of Theodoric and Amalasuntha, large-scale restoration of ancient Roman buildings was undertaken, and the tradition of Roman civic architecture continued. In Ravenna, new churches and monumental buildings were erected, several of which survive.
The
Literature
Some older works were copied in Greek and Gothic (e.g. the Codex Argenteus), and the literature is solidly in the Greco-Roman tradition. Cassiodorus, hailing from a distinguished background, and himself entrusted with high offices (consul and magister officiorum) represents the Roman ruling class. Like many others of his background, he served Theodoric and his heirs loyally and well, something expressed in the writings of the period.
In his Chronica, used later by
In Germanic languages, King Theodoric inspired countless
Social dynamics
Population
The population of the Ostrogothic kingdom was overwhelmingly of those who had lived prior to the Ostrogoths arriving with a minority being Ostrogothic.[38] Little Ostrogothic settlement appears to have happened in Italy south from Rome and Pescara. Picenum and the northern part of Samnium were areas of heavy Ostrogothic settlement while the same was true of places west of Ravenna near Milan and Pavia along with the beginning of Alps. Small amounts of Ostrogothic settlement happened in Dalmatia, west Pannonia and some areas of Tuscia.[39]
Economics and slavery
Villas that existed in the countryside would be abandonded or repurposed. Agriculture also became more diversified with woodland crops and animal husbandry becoming more common. Inland cities during the Ostrogothic period became more cut off from the outside world and became more reliant on local production areas. Cities along the Italian coast still received their trade from North Africa and places on the Eastern Mediterranean.[40]
In the Ostrogothic Kingdom
In popular culture
- The 1876 historical novel A Struggle for Rome by Felix Dahn (and its two-part screen adaptation in 1968 and 1969) focuses on the struggle among the Byzantines, the Ostrogoths and the native Italians over control of Italy after Theodoric's death.
- The 1938 historical novel Justinian.
- In the 1941 alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall by L. Sprague de Camp, a modern archaeologist is transported through time to Ostrogothic Italy, helps to stabilise it after Theodoric's death, and averts its conquest by Justinian.
- Guy Gavriel Kay's Sarantine Mosaic series takes place in a setting based on Ostrogothic Italy and the East Roman Empire, just before the Gothic War.
- Raptor documents the rise of Theodoric the Great and the Ostrogothic Kingdom through the eyes of a fictional hermaphroditeThorn.
Footnotes
References
- ^ Cohen (2016), pp. 510–521.
- ^ Cohen (2016), pp. 504–510.
- ^ a b Cohen (2016), pp. 523, 524.
- ^ Cohen (2016), pp. 521–523.
- ^ Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator, Variae, Lib. II., XLI. Luduin regi Francorum Theodericus rex.
- ^ Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome, 98
- ^ Jordanes, Getica, 271
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XII, pp. 413-421.
- ^ "At this time, Odovacar overcame and killed Odiva in Dalmatia", Cassiodorus, Chronica 1309, s.a.481
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XII, pp. 406-412.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XII, p. 422.
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XII, pp. 422-424.
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XII, pp. 454-455.
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, pp. 422-424.
- ISBN 978-1-107-05440-0.
- ISBN 978-90-04-31593-8.
- ^ Bury (1923), Vol. II, Ch. XIII, p. 458.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, pp. 153-155.
- ^ a b Cohen (2016), pp. 505–506.
- S2CID 247674196.
- ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, IV.33
- ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, II.27
- ^ Jordanes, Getica 303
- ^ Jordanes, Getica, 297
- ^ Jordanes, Getica, 299
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, pp. 461-462.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, p. 462.
- ^ Procopius, De Bello Vandalico I.VIII.11-14
- ^ a b c Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, p. 464.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, pp. 152-153.
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, p. 157.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, p. 161.
- ^ Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, pp. 159-160.
- ^ a b Bury (1923), Ch. XVIII, pp. 163-164.
- ^ Procopius, De Bello Gothico I.V.1
- ISBN 9780299087005.
- ^ "Pavia Royal town". Monasteri Imperiali Pavia. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
- ISBN 9780199362752. Retrieved December 12, 2023 – via Google Books.
"It was, as the name implies, an Ostrogothic kingdom but not in the sense that its population was largely or even substantially Gothic. The vast majority of tis inhabitants were of provincial Italo-Roman stock, but the kingdom had been created and its boundaries were subsequently maintained by the power of the Ostrogothic army with which Theoderic army with which Theoderic had conquered Italy between 489 and 493.
- S2CID 140723210. Retrieved December 12, 2023 – via JSTOR.
- ISBN 9789004315938. Retrieved December 12, 2023 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9781598849967.
Sources
Primary sources
- Procopius, De Bello Gothico, Volumes I-IV
- Charles C. Mierow.
- Cassiodorus, Chronica
- Cassiodorus, Varia epistolae ("Letters"), at the Project Gutenberg
- Anonymus Valesianus, Excerpta, Pars II
Secondary sources
- Amory, Patrick (2003). People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489-554. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52635-7.
- Arnold, Jonathan J. (2014). Theoderic and the Roman Imperial Restoration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05440-0.
- Barnwell, P. S. (1992). Emperor, Prefects & Kings: The Roman West, 395-565. UNC Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2071-1.
- Burns, Thomas S. (1984). A History of the Ostrogoths. Boomington.
- Bury, John Bagnell (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire Vols. I & II. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
- Cohen, Samuel (2016). "Religious Diversity". In Jonathan J. Arnold; M. Shane Bjornlie; ISBN 978-9004-31376-7.
- Gibbon, Edward. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. IV.. Chapters 41 & 43
- Heather, Peter (1998). The Goths. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-20932-4.
- Wolfram, Herwig; Dunlap, Thomas (1997). The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08511-4.
External links
- Media related to Ostrogothic Italy at Wikimedia Commons