Classification of ethnicity in the United Kingdom
A number of different systems of classification of ethnicity in the United Kingdom exist. These schemata have been the subject of debate, including about the nature of
National statistics
History and debate
The
Sociologist Peter J. Aspinall has categorised what he regards as a number of "persistent problems with salient collective terminology". These problems are ambiguity in respect of the populations that are described by different labels, the invisibility of white minority groups in official classifications, the acceptability of the terms used to those that they describe, and whether the collectivities have any substantive meaning.[5]
A number of academics have pointed out that the ethnicity classification employed in the census and other official statistics in the UK since 1991 involve confusion between the concepts of ethnicity and
In 2007, Simpson and Bola Akinwale also studied the stability of individuals' responses to ethnic group questions between the 1991 and 2001 census. They concluded that the membership of the "White" category was stable, whereas 7โ9 per cent of those in the "Asian" group and 23 per cent of both the "Caribbean" and the "African" group in 1991 had switched to another group by 2001. They suggested that conscious changes in affiliation explained little of this instability, whereas unreliability of the question was significant, partly due to the ambiguous nature of the categories used and partly due to imprecision in the imputation of missing values.[9]
It has also been argued that the wording of the ethnicity question in the 2001 census, "What is your ethnic group?", embodies "an essential being ethnic" as opposed to "a constructed belonging to an ethnicity".[10] The latter would be reflected in a question such as "choose one box to best describe your ethnic group", which was subsequently added in the 2011 census.[8] Sociologist Steven Vertovec argues that "much public discourse and service provision is still based on a limited set of Census categories", and that "these categories do not begin to convey the extent and modes of diversity existing within the population today".[11]
User consultation undertaken by the
Between 2004 and 2008, the
There were calls for the 2011 national census in England and Wales to include extra tick boxes so people could identify their ethnic group in category A as
Discussing the inclusion of nationalities such as "British" and "Irish" in the ethnic group categories of the census, Nissa Finney and Ludi Simpson argue that "on purely technical grounds, this is a mistake, confirmed by enumerators reporting that some Asian respondents had ticked 'British', having seen it as the first box and wishing to confirm their British identity and nationality".[23] Samira Shackle, writing in the New Statesman, argues that "the fact that hundreds of thousands choose to describe their own ethnicity as Welsh, Scottish, or Cornish shows that 'ethnic British' is a nebulous concept".[18]
Self-definition
The ethnicity data used in UK national statistics relies on individuals' self-definition. The Office for National Statistics explain this as follows:
Is a person's ethnic group self-defined? Yes. Membership of an ethnic group is something that is subjectively meaningful to the person concerned, and this is the principal basis for ethnic categorisation in the United Kingdom. So, in ethnic group questions, we are unable to base ethnic identification upon objective, quantifiable information as we would, say, for age or gender. And this means that we should rather ask people which group they see themselves as belonging to.[24]
This self-defined categorisation was also used for classifying ethnicity in the
Ethnicity categories
The following are the options the ONS currently recommends for ethnicity surveys:[29]
England and Wales | Northern Ireland | Scotland |
---|---|---|
White | ||
English/Welsh/Scottish/Northern Irish/British | Scottish | |
Other British | ||
Irish | ||
Gypsy or Irish traveller | Irish Traveller | Gypsy or Irish Traveller |
Polish | ||
Any other White background, please describe | Any other White ethnic group, please describe | |
Mixed / multiple ethnic groups | Mixed or Multiple ethnic groups | |
White and Black Caribbean | ||
White and Black African | ||
Any other Mixed / Multiple ethnic background, please describe | Any Mixed or Multiple ethnic groups, please describe | |
Asian / Asian British | Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British | |
Indian | Indian, Indian Scottish or Indian British | |
Pakistani | Pakistani, Pakistani Scottish or Pakistani British | |
Bangladeshi | Bangladeshi, Bangladeshi Scottish or Bangladeshi British | |
Chinese | Chinese, Chinese Scottish or Chinese British | |
Any other Asian, please describe | ||
Black / African / Caribbean / Black British | ||
African | African | |
African, African Scottish or African British | ||
Any other African, please describe | ||
Caribbean | Caribbean or Black | |
Caribbean, Caribbean Scottish or Caribbean British | ||
Black, Black Scottish or Black British | ||
Any other Black / African / Caribbean background, please describe | Any other Caribbean or Black, please describe | |
Other ethnic group | ||
Arab | Arab, Arab Scottish or Arab British | |
Any other ethnic group, please describe |
In addition to the above "tick-box" options, respondents can also make use of the "please describe" options, also known as "write-in" answers. To do this, they would have to select one of the "any other" tick-boxes on the census form and write in their answer in the box provided.[29]
Police
Code | Ethnicity[30] |
---|---|
IC1 | White - North European |
IC2 | White - South European |
IC3 | Black |
IC4 | Asian |
IC5 | Chinese, Japanese, or other South East Asian |
IC6 | Arab or North African |
IC9 | Unknown |
The police services of the UK began to classify arrests in racial groups in 1975, but later replaced the race code with an Identity Code (IC) system.[31]
One of the recommendations of the
The IC classification is still used for descriptions of suspects by police officers amongst themselves, but does risk incorrectly identifying a victim, a witness or a suspect compared to that person's own description of their ethnicity. When a person is stopped by a police officer exercising statutory powers and asked to provide information under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, they are asked to select one of the five main categories representing broad ethnic groups and then a more specific cultural background from within this group.[32] Officers must record the respondent's answer, not their own opinion. The "6+1" IC code system remains widely used, when the police are unable to stop a suspect and ask them to give their self-defined ethnicity.[30]
Code | Ethnicity[30] |
---|---|
Asian or Asian British | |
A1 | Indian |
A2 | Pakistani |
A3 | Bangladeshi |
A9 | Any other Asian background |
Black or Black British | |
B1 | Caribbean |
B2 | African |
B9 | Any other Black background |
Mixed | |
M1 | White and Black Caribbean |
M2 | White and Black African |
M3 | White and Asian |
M9 | Any other mixed background |
Chinese or any other ethnic group | |
O1 | Chinese |
O9 | Any other ethnic group |
White | |
W1 | British |
W2 | Irish |
W9 | Any other White background |
+1 codes | |
N1 | The officer's presence is urgently required elsewhere |
N2 | The situation involves public disorder |
N3 | The person did not understand what is required |
N4 | The person declined to define their ethnicity |
Schools
The
Healthcare
The ethnic group categories used in the National Health Service in England are based on the 2001 census. It has been argued that this causes problems, as other agencies such as social services use the newer 2011 census categories.[37] In Scotland, the 2011 Scottish census categories are now used.[38] In 2011, Scotland started to record ethnicity on death certificates, becoming the first country in the world to do so. Ethnicity data is not routinely recorded on birth certificates in any part of the UK.[39]
Whether the official UK ethnic group classifications are useful for research on health is the subject of debate. Peter Aspinall argues that the 2001 census categories fail to adequately break down the "white" group and ignore ethno-religious differences between South Asian groups, amongst other issues.[40] Writing in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Charles Agyemang, Raj Bhopal and Marc Bruijnzeels argue that: "The current groupings of African descent populations in the USA and the UK such as Black, Black African, and African American hide the huge heterogeneity within these groups, which weakens the value of ethnic categorisation as a means of providing culturally appropriate health care, and in understanding the causes of ethnic differences in disease. Such broad terms may not fit with self definition of ethnicity".[41]
Collective terms for minority ethnic groups
Since the Second World War, many minority groups in the UK were collectively referred to as "coloured", a term that is deprecated and offensive in modern-day usage.[42] From the 1970s until the early 1990s, those who subscribed to the notion of political blackness used the term "black" to refer to all ethnic minorities in the UK; however, this also came under scrutiny in the 1990s, especially from British Asians, who did not feel "black".[43][44][45][46]
A number of terms have been used, by government and more generally, to refer to the collective ethnic minority population. These include "black and minority ethnic" (BME), "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (BAME) and "black and ethnic minority" (BEM). These terms have been criticised on a number of grounds, including for excluding
In November 2022, the Labour-run Westminster City Council committed to replace BAME with "global majority." However, Conservative MP John Hayes remarked that the change was "deeply sinister and must be resisted at every turn."[52]
See also
Notes
- ^ "Harmonised Concepts and Questions for Social Data Sources - Primary Standards: Ethnic Group" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "How has ethnic diversity grown 1991-2001-2011?" (PDF). ESRC Centre on Dynamics of Ethnicity. December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
- PMID 12159122.
- ^ "A guide to comparing 1991 and 2001 Census ethnic group data" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- S2CID 143472578.
- (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
- ^ a b Kertzer, David I.; Arel, Dominique (2002). "Censuses, identity formation, and the struggle for political power". In Kertzer, David I.; Arel, Dominique (eds.). Census and Identity: The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Language in National Censuses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1โ42.
- ^ S2CID 144841712.
- ^ Simpson, Ludi; Akinwale, Bola (2007). "Quantifying Stability and Change in Ethnic Group". Journal of Official Statistics. 23 (2): 185โ208.
- S2CID 3009685. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ Vertovec, Steven (June 2007). "New complexities of cohesion in Britain: Super-diversity, transnationalism and civil-integration" (PDF). Commission on Integration and Cohesion. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Final recommended questions for the 2011 Census in England and Wales: Ethnic group" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. October 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
- ^ "Scotland's New Official Ethnicity Classification" (PDF). General Register Office for Scotland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Fight goes on to include Cornish ethnicity and language in Census 2011 options [dead link]
- ^ "2006 local govt abstracts". Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "Summary report: experts, community and special interest groups" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 September 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2009.
- ^ "Arab Population in the UK - Study for consideration of inclusion of 'Arab' as an ethnic group on future census returns" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
- ^ a b Shackle, Samira (13 June 2012). "Is there any such thing as British ethnicity?". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
- ^ "2011 census questions published". BBC News. 21 October 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
- ^ "2011 Census: Household Questionnaire" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ "Final recommended questions for the 2011 Census in England and Wales: Ethnic group" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. October 2009. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Final recommended questions for the 2011 Census in England and Wales: Ethnic group" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. October 2009. p. 44. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-1847420077.
- ^ "Ethnic group statistics: A guide for the collection and classification of ethnicity data" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 2003. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- ^ "Harmonised Concepts and Questions for Social Data Sources: Primary Standards โ Ethnic Group" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. April 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
- ^ a b "Population size: 7.9% from a non-White ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. 8 January 2004. Archived from the original on 19 June 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
- PMID 12159122.
- ^ Bosveld, Karin; Connolly, Helen; Rendall, Michael S. (31 March 2006). "A guide to comparing 1991 and 2001 Census ethnic group data" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- ^ a b "Ethnic Group". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ a b c d Bowsher, Kevin (2 March 2007). "The code systems used within the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) to formally record ethnicity". Metropolitan Police Authority. Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ Mackie, Lindsay (14 June 1978). "Race causes an initial confusion". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ "Code of Practice for the Exercise by Police Officers of Statutory Powers of Stop and Search; Police Officers and Police Staff of Requirements to Record Public Encounters" (PDF). Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 CODE A. HMSO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 August 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2009.
- ^ a b "School census spring and summer 2014 guide for secondary schools: Instructions for preparing for and completing the school census 2014 for secondary schools and academies (including free schools) in England" (PDF). Department for Education. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "The use of performance data in local authorities and schools". HM Inspectorate for Education and Training in Wales. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
- ^ Bloom, Adi (27 September 2013). "Diversity - Ethnic groupings obscure realities". TES. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- S2CID 145623216.
- ^ "Ethnic Category Coding โ DSCN11/2008 - Statement of Need for Standard Review" (PDF). Standardisation Committee for Care Information. 11 June 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnic Group". Information Services Division, NHS National Services Scotland. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Mathur, Rohini; Grundy, Emily; Smeeth, Liam (March 2013). "Availability and use of UK based ethnicity data for health research" (PDF). National Centre for Research Methods. p. 17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- S2CID 11991832.
- PMID 16286485.
- ^ Mohdin, Aamna (3 March 2018). "'Political blackness': a very British concept with a complex history". Quartz.
- ^ Appiah, Kwame Anthony (7 October 2020). "What We Can Learn From the Rise and Fall of 'Political Blackness'". The New York Times.
- S2CID 143869991.
- S2CID 147057939.
- S2CID 148845583.
- S2CID 143472578.
- ^ Okolosie, Lola; Harker, Joseph; Green, Leah; Dabiri, Emma (22 May 2015). "Is it time to ditch the term 'black, Asian and minority ethnic' (BAME)?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- ^ Sandhu, Rajdeep (17 May 2018). "Should BAME be ditched as a term for black, Asian and minority ethnic people?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^ MacInnes, Paul (12 November 2020). "'BAME' term offends those it attempts to describe, sporting survey finds". The Guardian.
- ^ "BAME acronym: UK broadcasters commit to avoiding catch-all term". BBC News. 7 December 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
- ^ Beal, James (25 November 2022). "Westminster council rebrand dubs minorities 'global majority'". The Times. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022.