Otto the Great
Otto the Great | |
---|---|
Duke of Saxony | |
Reign | 2 July 936 – 7 May 973 |
Predecessor | Henry the Fowler |
Successor | Bernard I |
Born | 23 November 912 possibly Wallhausen, East Francia[2] |
Died | 7 May 973 Memleben, Holy Roman Empire | (aged 60)
Burial | |
Spouse |
|
Issue |
|
Ottonian | |
Father | Henry the Fowler |
Mother | Matilda of Ringelheim |
Signum manus |
Otto I (23 November 912 – 7 May 973), traditionally known as Otto the Great (German: Otto der Große Italian: Ottone il Grande), or Otto of Saxony (German: Otto von Sachsen Italian: Ottone di Sassonia), was East Frankish king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973.[b] He was the eldest son of Henry the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim.
Otto inherited the
After putting down a brief civil war among the rebellious duchies, Otto defeated the
Otto's later years were marked by conflicts with the papacy and struggles to stabilize his rule over Italy. Reigning from Rome, Otto sought to improve relations with the Byzantine Empire, which opposed his claim to emperorship and his realm's further expansion to the south. To resolve this conflict, the Byzantine princess Theophanu married his son Otto II in April 972. Otto finally returned to Germany in August 972 and died at Memleben in May 973. Otto II succeeded him.
Otto has been
Historian David Bachrach notes the role of the bureaucracy and administration apparatus which the Ottonians inherited from the Carolingians and ultimately from the Ancient Romans, and which they developed greatly themselves: "It was the success of the Ottonians in molding the raw materials bequeathed to them into a formidable military machine that made possible the establishment of Germany as the preeminent kingdom in Europe from the tenth through the mid-thirteenth century." Bachrach highlights in particular the achievements of the first two Ottonian rulers, Henry I and Otto the Great in creating this situation. Their rules also marked the start of new, vigorous literary traditions.[6] The patronage of Otto and his immediate successors facilitated a so-called "Ottonian Renaissance" of arts and architecture. As one of the most notable Holy Roman emperors, Otto's footprint in artistic depictions is also considerable.
Early life and family
Otto was born on 23 November 912, the oldest son of the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Fowler and his second wife Matilda, the daughter of Dietrich of Ringelheim, a Saxon count in Westphalia.[7] Henry had previously married Hatheburg of Merseburg, also a daughter of a Saxon count, in 906, but this marriage was annulled, probably in 909 after she had given birth to Henry's first son and Otto's half-brother Thankmar.[8] Otto had four full siblings: Hedwig, Gerberga, Henry and Bruno.[7]
Background
On 23 December 918,
Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king,[13] but Arnulf of Bavaria did not recognize Henry's position. According to the Annales iuvavenses, Arnulf was elected king by the Bavarians in opposition to Henry, but his "reign" was short-lived; Henry defeated him in two campaigns. In 921, Henry besieged Arnulf's residence at Ratisbon (Regensburg) and forced him into submission. Arnulf had to accept Henry's sovereignty; Bavaria retained some autonomy and the right to invest bishops in the Bavarian church.[14]
Heir apparent
Otto first gained experience as a military commander when the German kingdom fought against
While Henry consolidated power within Germany, he also prepared for an alliance with
Several years later, shortly before Henry's death, an Imperial Diet at Erfurt formally ratified the king's succession arrangements. Some of his estates and treasures were to be distributed among Thankmar, Henry, and Bruno.[18] But departing from customary Carolingian inheritance, the king designated Otto as the sole heir apparent without a prior formal election by the various dukes.[19]
Reign as king
Coronation
Henry died from the effects of a
According to Widukind of Corvey, Otto had the four other dukes of the kingdom (from the duchies of
Despite his peaceful transition, the royal family was not harmonious during his early reign. Otto's younger brother Henry also claimed the throne, contrary to his father's wishes. According to her biography, Vita Mathildis reginae posterior, their mother had favored Henry as king: in contrast to Otto, Henry had been "born in the purple" during his father's reign and shared his name.[24]
Otto also faced internal opposition from various local aristocrats. In 936, Otto appointed
Rebellion of the dukes
Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria, died in 937 and was succeeded by his son Eberhard. The new duke quickly came into conflict with Otto, as Eberhard opposed the king's sovereignty over Bavaria under the peace treaty between King Henry and Arnulf. Refusing to recognize Otto's supremacy, Eberhard rebelled against the king. In two campaigns in the spring and fall of 938, Otto defeated and exiled Eberhard from the kingdom and stripped him of his titles. In his place, Otto appointed Eberhard's uncle Berthold, a count in the March of Carinthia, as the new Duke of Bavaria on the condition that Berthold would recognize Otto as the sole authority to appoint bishops and to administer royal property within the duchy.[27]
At the same time, Otto had to settle a dispute between Bruning, a Saxon noble, and Duke Eberhard of Franconia, the brother of the former king Conrad I of Germany. After the rise of a Saxon to kingship, Bruning, a local lord with possessions in the borderland between Franconia and Saxony, refused to swear fealty to any non-Saxon ruler. Eberhard attacked Bruning's Helmern castle near Peckelsheim, killed all of its inhabitants and burned it down. The king called the feuding parties to his court at Magdeburg, where Eberhard was ordered to pay a fine, and his lieutenants were sentenced to carry dead dogs in public, which was considered a particularly shameful punishment.[28]
Infuriated with Otto's actions, Eberhard joined Otto's half-brother Thankmar, Count Wichmann, and
War in France
Shortly after his reconciliation, Eberhard planned a second rebellion against Otto. He promised to assist Otto's younger brother Henry in claiming the throne and recruited Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine, to join the rebellion. Gilbert was married to Otto's sister Gerberga of Saxony, but had sworn fealty to King
While Otto gained some initial victories against the rebels, he was unable to capture the conspirators and end the rebellion. Archbishop Frederick sought to mediate peace between the combatants, but Otto rejected his proposal. Under Otto's direction, Duke Herman of Swabia led an army against the conspirators into Franconia and Lorraine. Otto recruited allies from the
In 940, Otto and Henry were reconciled through the efforts of their mother. Henry returned to East Francia, and Otto appointed him as the new
Consolidation of power
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2017) |
The decade between 941 and 951 was marked by Otto's exercise of undisputed domestic power. Through the subordination of the dukes under his authority, Otto asserted his power to make decisions without their prior agreement. He deliberately ignored the claims and ranks of the nobility, who wanted dynastic succession in the assignment of office, by freely appointing individuals of his choice to the kingdom's offices. Loyalty to Otto, not lineage, was the pathway towards advancement under his rule. His mother Matilda disapproved of this policy and was accused by Otto's royal advisers of undermining his authority. After Otto briefly exiled her to her Westphalian manors at Enger in 947, Matilda was brought back to court at the urging of his wife Eadgyth.
The nobility found it difficult to adapt to Otto, as the kingdom had never before followed individual succession to the throne. Whereas tradition dictated that all the sons of the former king were to receive a portion of the kingdom, Henry's succession plan placed Otto at the head of a united kingdom at the expense of his brothers. Otto's authoritarian style was in stark contrast to that of his father. Henry had purposely waived Church anointment at coronation as a symbol of his election by his people and governing his kingdom on the basis of "friendship pacts" (Latin: amicitia). Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of duchies and saw himself as a first among equals. Instead of seeking to administer the kingdom through royal representatives, as Charlemagne had done, Henry allowed the dukes to maintain complete internal control of their holdings as long as his superior status was recognized. Otto, on the other hand, had accepted Church anointment and regarded his kingdom as a feudal monarchy with himself holding the "divine right" to rule it. He reigned without concern for the internal hierarchy of the various kingdoms' noble families.
This new policy ensured Otto's position as undisputed master of the kingdom. Members of his family and other aristocrats who rebelled against Otto were forced to confess their guilt publicly and unconditionally surrender to him, hoping for a pardon from their king. For nobles and other high-ranking officials, Otto's punishments were typically mild and the punished were usually restored to a position of authority afterwards. His brother Henry rebelled twice and was pardoned twice after his surrenders. He was even appointed Duke of Lorraine and later Duke of Bavaria. Rebellious commoners were treated far more harshly; Otto usually had them executed.[34]
Otto continued to reward loyal
In 944, Otto appointed
On 29 January 946, Eadgyth died suddenly at the age of 35, and Otto buried his wife in the Cathedral of Magdeburg.[36] The union had lasted sixteen years and produced two children; with Eadgyth's death, Otto began to make arrangements for his succession. Like his father before him, Otto intended to transfer sole rule of the kingdom to his son Liudolf upon his death. Otto called together all leading figures of the kingdom and had them swear an oath of allegiance to Liudolf, thereby promising to recognize his sole claim to the throne as Otto's heir apparent.[37]
Relying on recent archaeological evidences, Bachrach estimates that the armies he mobilized in 953 and 954 should have been in the range of 20,000 to 25,000 men, which were needed to besiege cities such as Mainz, which was defended by armies in excess of 30,000.[38]
Foreign relations
France
The West Frankish kings had lost considerable royal power after internal struggles with their aristocracy, but still asserted their authority over the Duchy of Lorraine, a territory also claimed by East Francia. The German king was supported by Louis IV's chief domestic rival, Hugh the Great. Louis IV's second attempt to reign over Lorraine in 940 was based on his asserted claim to be the rightful Duke of Lorraine due to his marriage to Gerberga of Saxony, Otto's sister and the widow of Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine. Otto did not recognize Louis IV's claim and appointed his brother Henry as duke instead. In the following years, both sides tried to increase their influence in Lorraine, but the duchy remained a part of Otto's kingdom.
Despite their rivalry, Louis IV and Hugh were both tied to Otto's family through marriage bonds. Otto intervened for peace in 942 and announced a formal reconciliation between the two. As a part of the deal, Hugh was to perform an act of submission to Louis IV, and in return, Louis IV was to waive any claims to Lorraine. After a short period of peace, the West Frankish kingdom fell into another crisis in 946.
To settle the issue of control over the
Otto gave the control of West Frankish affairs to his son-in-law
Burgundy
Otto continued the peaceful relationship between Germany and the
Bohemia
Byzantine Empire
During his early reign, Otto fostered close relations with Emperor
Slavic wars
As Otto was finalizing actions to suppress his brother's rebellion in 939, the Slavs on the Elbe River revolted against German rule. Having been subdued by Otto's father in 928, the Slavs saw Henry's rebellion as an opportunity to regain their independence.[51] Otto's lieutenant in east Saxony, Count Gero of Merseburg, was charged with the subjugation of the pagan Polabian Slavs. According to Widukind, Gero invited about thirty Slavic chieftains to a banquet; after the feast his soldiers attacked and massacred the unsuspecting drunken guests.[52] The Slavs demanded revenge and marched against Gero with an enormous army. Otto agreed to a brief truce with his rebellious brother Henry and moved to support Gero. After fierce fighting, their combined forces were able to repel the advancing Slavs; Otto then returned west to subdue his brother's rebellion.[51]
In 941, Gero initiated another plot to subdue the Slavs. He recruited a captive Slav named Tugumir, a Hevelli chieftain, to his cause. Gero promised to support him in claiming the Hevellian throne, if Tugumir would later recognize Otto as his overlord. Tugumir agreed and returned to the Slavs. Due to Gero's massacre, few Slavic chieftains remained, and the Slavs quickly proclaimed Tugumir as their prince. Upon assuming the throne, Tugumir murdered his chief rival and proclaimed his loyalty to Otto, incorporating his territory into the German kingdom. Otto granted Tugumir the title of "duke" and allowed Tugumir to rule his people, subject to Otto's suzerainty, in the same manner as the German dukes.[53] After the coup by Gero and Tugumir, the Slavic federation broke apart. In control of the key Hevelli stronghold of Brandenburg, Gero was able to attack and defeat the divided Slavic tribes. Otto and his successors extended their control into Eastern Europe through military colonization and the establishment of churches.[54]
Military expansion into Italy
Disputed Italian throne
Upon the death of Emperor
King
In 940, Berengar II, Margrave of Ivrea, a grandson of former King Berengar I, led a revolt of Italian nobles against his uncle Hugh. Forewarned by Lothair, Hugh exiled Berengar II from Italy, and the margrave fled to the protection of Otto's court in 941. In 945, Berengar II returned and defeated Hugh with the support of the Italian nobility. Hugh abdicated in favor of his son and retired to Provence; Berengar II made terms with Lothair and established himself as the decisive power behind the throne. Lothair married the sixteen-year-old Adelaide in 947 and became nominal king when Hugh died on 10 April 948, but Berengar II continued to hold power as mayor of the palace or viceroy.[59][60]
Strategical marriage to Adelaide, Queen of Italy
Lothair's brief "reign" came to an end with his death on 22 November 950, and Berengar II was crowned king on 15 December, with his son
First Italian Military Expedition
In the early summer of 951, before his father marched across the Alps, Otto's son
Otto and Liudolf's troops arrived in northern Italy in September 951 without opposition from Berengar II. As they descended into the
Soon after his father's marriage in Pavia, Liudolf left Italy and returned to Swabia. Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, the
Aftermath: diplomacy and feudal agreement
In a weak military position with few troops, Otto's regent in Italy attempted a diplomatic solution and opened peace negotiations with Berengar II. Conrad recognized that a military confrontation would impose great costs upon Germany, both in manpower and in treasure. At a time when the kingdom was facing invasions from the north by the Danes and from the east by the Slavs and Hungarians, all available resources were required north of the Alps. Conrad believed that a client state relationship with Italy would be in Germany's best interest. He offered a peace treaty in which Berengar II would remain King of Italy on the condition that he recognized Otto as his overlord. Berengar II agreed and the pair traveled north to meet with Otto to seal the agreement.[67]
Conrad's treaty was met with disdain by Adelaide and Henry. Though Adelaide was
Conrad and Berengar II arrived at Magdeburg to meet Otto, but had to wait three days before an audience was granted. This was a humiliating offense for the man Otto had named his regent.[69] Though Adelaide and Henry urged the treaty's immediate rejection, Otto referred the issue to an Imperial Diet for further debate. Appearing before the Diet in August 952 in Augsburg, Berengar II and his son Adalbert were forced to swear fealty to Otto as his vassals. In return, Otto granted Berengar II Italy as his fiefdom and restored the title "King of Italy" to him. The Italian king had to pay an enormous annual tribute and was required to cede the Duchy of Friuli south of the Alps. Otto reorganized this area into the March of Verona and put it under Henry's control as reward for his loyalty. The Duchy of Bavaria therefore grew to become the most powerful domain in Germany.[70]
Relations with the Catholic Church
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2017) |
Beginning in the late 940s, Otto rearranged interior policies by utilizing the offices of the Catholic Church as tools of royal administration, thereby setting the course for the Ottonian
The most prominent member of this blended royal-ecclesiastical service was his own brother
Otto granted the various bishops and abbots of the kingdom the rank of
Liudolf's Civil War
Rebellion against Otto
With the humiliating failure of his Italian campaign and Otto's marriage to Adelaide, Liudolf became estranged from his father and planned a rebellion. On Christmas Day 951, he held a grand feast at
In winter 952, Adelaide gave birth to a son, whom she named Henry after her brother-in-law and the child's grandfather,
Word of the rebellion reached Otto at
When Otto returned to
Otto's actions at the Diet provoked the people of Swabia and Franconia into rebellion. After initial defeats by Otto, Liudolf and Conrad fell back to their headquarters in Mainz. In July 953, Otto and his army laid siege to the city, supported by Henry's army from Bavaria. After two months of siege, the city had not fallen and rebellions against Otto's rule grew stronger in southern Germany. Faced with these challenges, Otto opened peace negotiations with Liudolf and Conrad. Bruno the Great, Otto's youngest brother and royal chancellor since 940, accompanied his older brothers and oversaw the arrangements for the negotiations. As the newly appointed Archbishop of Cologne, Bruno was eager to end the civil war in Lorraine, which was in his ecclesiastical territory. The rebels demanded ratification of the treaty they had previously agreed to with Otto, but Henry's provocation during the meeting caused the negotiations to break down.[78] Conrad and Liudolf left the meeting to continue the civil war. Angered by their actions, Otto stripped both men of their duchies of Swabia and Lorraine, and appointed his brother Bruno as the new Duke of Lorraine.
While on military campaign with Otto, Henry appointed the Bavarian
Forcing an end to the rebellion
In early 954, Margrave Hermann Billung, Otto's long-time loyal vassal in Saxony, was facing increased Slavic movements in the east. Taking advantage of the German civil war, the Slavs raided deeper and deeper into the adjacent border areas. Meanwhile, the Hungarians began extensive raids into Southern Germany. Though Liudolf and Conrad prepared defenses against the invasions in their territories, the Hungarians devastated Bavaria and Franconia. On Palm Sunday, 954, Liudolf held a great feast at Worms and invited the Hungarian chieftains to join him. There, he presented the invaders with gifts of gold and silver.[80]
Otto's brother Henry soon spread rumors that Conrad and Liudolf had invited the Hungarians into Germany in hopes of using them against Otto. Public opinion quickly turned against the rebels in these duchies. With this change in opinion and the death of his wife Liutgarde, Otto's only daughter, Conrad began peace negotiations with Otto, which were eventually joined by Liudolf and Archbishop Frederick.[81] A truce was declared, and Otto called a meeting of the Imperial Diet on 15 June 954 at Langenzenn. Before the assembly convened, Conrad and Frederick were reconciled with Otto. At the Diet, tensions flared up again when Henry accused his nephew Liudolf of conspiring with the Hungarians. Though Conrad and Frederick implored the enraged Liudolf to seek peace, Liudolf left the meeting determined to continue the civil war.[82]
Liudolf, with his lieutenant Arnulf II (the effective ruler of Bavaria), took his army south towards Regensburg in Bavaria, quickly followed by Otto. The armies met at Nuremberg and engaged in a deadly, though not decisive, battle. Liudolf retreated to Regensburg, where he was besieged by Otto. Otto's army was unable to break through the city walls but caused starvation within the city after two months of siege. Liudolf sent a message to Otto seeking to open peace negotiations; the king demanded unconditional surrender, which Liudolf refused.[83] After Arnulf II had been killed in continuous fighting, Liudolf fled from Bavaria for his domain of Swabia, quickly followed by Otto's army. The adversaries met at Illertissen near the Swabian-Bavarian border and opened negotiations. Liudolf and Otto called a truce until an Imperial Diet could be assembled to ratify the peace. The king forgave his son all transgressions and Liudolf agreed to accept any punishment his father felt appropriate.[84]
Soon after this peace agreement, the aging and sick Archbishop Frederick died in October 954. With the surrender of Liudolf, the rebellion had been put down throughout Germany except in Bavaria. Otto convened the Imperial Diet in December 954 at Arnstadt. Before the assembled nobles of the kingdom, Liudolf and Conrad declared their fealty to Otto and yielded control over all the territories that their armies still occupied. Though Otto did not restore their former ducal titles to them, he did allow them to retain their private estates. The Diet ratified Otto's actions:
- Liudolf was promised regency over Italy and command of an army to depose Berengar II
- Conrad was promised military command against the Hungarians
- Burchard III, son of former Swabian Duke Burchard II, was appointed Duke of Swabia (Liudolf's former duchy)
- Bruno remained as new Duke of Lorraine (Conrad's former duchy)
- Henry was confirmed as Duke of Bavaria
- Otto's oldest son William was appointed Archbishop of Mainz and Primate of Germany
- Otto retained direct rule over the Duchy of Saxony and over the territories of the former Duchy of Franconia
The king's measures in December 954 finally brought an end to the two-year-long civil war. Liudolf's rebellion, though temporarily weakening Otto's position, ultimately strengthened it as absolute ruler of Germany.
Hungarian military invasions
The Hungarians (Magyars) invaded Otto's domain as part of the larger Hungarian invasions of Europe and ravaged much of Southern Germany during Liudolf's civil war. Though Otto had installed the Margraves Hermann Billung and Gero on his kingdom's northern and northeastern borders, the Principality of Hungary to the southeast was a permanent threat to German security. The Hungarians took advantage of the kingdom's civil war and invaded the Duchy of Bavaria in spring 954. Though Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, and Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, had successfully prevented the Hungarians from invading their own territories in the west, the invaders managed to reach the Rhine River, sacking much of Bavaria and Franconia in the process.
The Hungarians, encouraged by their successful raids, began another invasion into Germany in the spring of 955. Otto's army, now unhindered by civil war, was able to defeat the invasion, and soon the Hungarians sent an ambassador to seek peace with Otto. The ambassador proved to be a decoy: Otto's brother Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, sent word to Otto that the Hungarians had crossed into his territory from the southeast. The main Hungarian army had camped along the
Otto and his army fought the Hungarian force on 10 August 955 at the Battle of Lechfeld. Under Otto's command were Burchard III, Duke of Swabia and Bohemian troops of Duke Boleslaus I. Though outnumbered nearly two to one, Otto was determined to push the Hungarian forces out of his territory. According to Widukind of Corvey, Otto "pitched his camp in the territory of the city of Augsburg and joined there the forces of Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, who was himself lying mortally ill nearby, and by Duke Conrad with a large following of Franconian knights. Conrad's unexpected arrival encouraged the warriors so much that they wished to attack the enemy immediately."[86]
The Hungarians crossed the river and immediately attacked the Bohemians, followed by the Swabians under Burchard. Confusing the defenders with a rain of arrows, they plundered the baggage train and made many captives. As Otto received word of the attack, he ordered Conrad to relieve his rear units with a counter-attack. Upon the successful completion of his mission, Conrad returned to the main forces and the King launched an immediate assault. Despite a volley of arrows, Otto's army smashed into the Hungarian lines and was able to fight them in hand-to-hand combat, giving the traditionally nomadic warriors no room to use their preferred shoot-and-run tactics; the Hungarians suffered heavy losses and were forced to retreat in disorder.[87][e]
According to Widukind of Corvey, Otto was proclaimed Father of the Fatherland and Emperor at the following victory celebration.[f] While the battle was not a crushing defeat for the Hungarians, as Otto was not able to chase the fleeing army into Hungarian lands, the battle ended nearly 100 years of Hungarian invasions into Western Europe.[89]
While Otto was fighting the Hungarians with his main army deployed in Southern Germany, the Obotrite Slavs in the north were in a state of insurrection. Count
Celebrations for Otto's victory over the pagan Hungarians and Slavs were held in churches across the kingdom, with bishops attributing the victory to divine intervention and as proof of Otto's "divine right" to rule. The battles of Lechfeld and Recknitz mark a turning point in Otto's reign. The victories over Hungarians and Slavs sealed his hold on power over Germany, with the duchies firmly under royal authority. From 955 on, Otto would not experience another rebellion against his rule and as a result was able to further consolidate his position throughout Central Europe.
Otto's son-in-law, Conrad, the former Duke of Lorraine, was killed in the Battle of Lechfeld and the king's brother Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, was mortally wounded, dying a few months later on 1 November of that year. With Henry's death, Otto appointed his four-year-old nephew
Reign as emperor
Second Italian Military Expedition and imperial coronation
Burgundian princess Adelaide, queen of Italy whom the margrave Berengar of Ivrea had taken prisoner in 950, appealed to Otto for help. Otto marched into Italy in 951 and married Adelaide. In 952 Berengar signed a peace treaty in which he became Otto's vassal for the kingdom of Italy.[95]
Liudolf's death in the fall of 957 deprived Otto of both an heir and a commander of his expedition against King Berengar II of Italy.
After the Pope agreed to crown him as Emperor, Otto assembled his army to march upon Italy. In preparation for his second Italian campaign and the imperial coronation, Otto planned his kingdom's future. At the Imperial Diet at Worms in May 961, Otto named his six-year-old son Otto II as heir apparent and co-ruler, and had him crowned at Aachen Cathedral on 26 May 961.
Otto's army descended into northern Italy in August 961 through the Brenner Pass at Trento. The German king moved towards Pavia, the former Lombard capital of Italy, where he celebrated Christmas and assumed the title King of Italy for himself. Berengar II's armies retreated to their strongholds in order to avoid battle with Otto, allowing him to advance southward unopposed. Otto reached Rome on 31 January 962; three days later, he was crowned Emperor by Pope John XII at Old St. Peter's Basilica. The Pope also anointed Otto's wife Adelaide of Italy, who had accompanied Otto on his Italian campaign, as empress. With Otto's coronation as emperor, the Kingdom of Germany and the Kingdom of Italy were unified into a common realm, later called the Holy Roman Empire.[100]
Papal politics
On 12 February 962, Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII called a synod in Rome to legalise their relationship. At the synod, Pope John XII approved Otto's long-desired
The following day, Otto and John XII ratified the
With the Diploma signed, the new Emperor marched against Berengar II to reconquer Italy. Being besieged at San Leo, Berengar II surrendered in 963. Upon the successful completion of Otto's campaign, John XII began to fear the Emperor's rising power in Italy and opened negotiations with Berengar II's son, Adalbert of Italy to depose Otto. The Pope also sent envoys to the Hungarians and the Byzantine Empire to join him and Adalbert in an alliance against the Emperor. Otto discovered the Pope's plot and, after defeating and imprisoning Berengar II, marched on Rome. John XII fled from Rome, and Otto, upon his arrival in Rome, summoned a council and deposed John XII as Pope, appointing Leo VIII as his successor.[104]
Otto fights Romans' decision to elect Pope Benedict V
Otto released most of his army to return to Germany by the end of 963, confident his rule in Italy and within Rome was secure. The Roman populace, however, considered Leo VIII, a layman with no former ecclesiastical training, unacceptable as Pope. In February 964, the Roman people forced Leo VIII to flee the city. In his absence, Leo VIII was deposed and John XII was restored to the
Third Italian Military Expedition
Otto returned to Germany in January 965, believing his affairs in Italy had been settled.
Peace in Italy, however, would not last long. Adalbert, the son of the deposed King Berengar II of Italy, rebelled against Otto's rule over the Kingdom of Italy. Otto dispatched Burchard III of Swabia, one of his closest advisors, to crush the rebellion. Burchard III met Adalbert at the Battle of the Po on 25 June 965, defeating the rebels and restoring Italy to Ottonian control. Pope Leo VIII died on 1 March 965, leaving the chair of St. Peter vacant. The Church elected, with Otto's approval, John XIII as new Pope in October 965. John XIII's arrogant behavior and foreign backing soon made him disliked among the local population. In December of the same year, he was taken into custody by the Roman people but was able to escape a few weeks later. Following the Pope's request for help, the Emperor prepared his army for a third expedition into Italy.[108]
In August 966 at Worms, Otto announced his arrangements for the government of Germany in his absence. Otto's illegitimate son Archbishop William of Mainz would serve as his regent over all of Germany, while Otto's trusted lieutenant, Margrave Hermann Billung, would be his personal administrator over the Duchy of Saxony. With preparations completed, Otto left his heir in William's custody and led his army into northern Italy via Strasbourg and Chur.[109]
Reign from Rome
Upon Otto's arrival in Italy, John XIII was restored to his papal throne in mid-November 966 without opposition by the people. Otto captured the twelve leaders of the rebel militia, which had deposed and imprisoned the Pope, and had them hanged.[110] Taking up permanent residence at Rome, the Emperor travelled, accompanied by the Pope, to Ravenna to celebrate Easter in 967. A following synod confirmed Magdeburg's disputed status as a new archdiocese with equal rights to the established German archdioceses.[111]
With his matters arranged in northern Italy, the Emperor continued to expand his realm to the south. Since February 967, the
The Byzantines opened peace talks with Otto, despite his expansive policy in their sphere of influence. Otto desired both an imperial princess as a bride for his son and successor Otto II as well as the legitimacy and prestige of a connection between the Ottonian dynasty in the West and the Macedonian dynasty in the East. In order to further his dynastic plans, and in preparation for his son's marriage, Otto returned to Rome in the winter of 967 where he had Otto II crowned co-Emperor by Pope John XIII on Christmas Day 967.[113] Although Otto II was now nominal co-ruler, he exercised no real authority until the death of his father.[114]
In the following years, both empires sought to strengthen their influence in southern Italy with several campaigns. In 969, John I Tzimiskes assassinated and succeeded Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros in a military revolt.[115] Finally recognizing Otto's imperial title, the new eastern emperor sent his niece Theophanu to Rome in 972, and she married Otto II on 14 April 972.[116] As part of this rapprochement, the conflict over southern Italy was finally resolved: the Byzantine Empire accepted Otto's dominion over the principalities of Capua, Benevento and Salerno; in return the German Emperor retreated from the Byzantine possessions in Apulia and Calabria.[116]
Culture
Otto patronised the arts and learning, helping establish several cathedral schools that evolved into vibrant cultural centres., she wrote plays that incorporated Roman comedy with the tales of early Christian martyrs.
Final years and death
With his son's wedding completed and peace with the Byzantine Empire concluded, Otto led the imperial family back to Germany in August 972.
Celebrating Easter with a great assembly in
The transition of power to his seventeen-year-old son Otto II was seamless. On 8 May 973, the lords of the Empire confirmed Otto II as their new ruler. Otto II arranged for a magnificent thirty-day funeral, in which his father was buried beside his first wife Eadgyth in Magdeburg Cathedral.[125]
Family and children
German royal dynasties | |
---|---|
Family tree of the German monarchs Category:Ottonian dynasty | |
Succession | |
Preceded by Conradine dynasty | |
Followed by Salian dynasty | |
Although never Emperor, Otto's father
Otto had two wives and at least seven children, one of which was illegitimate.[126]
- With an unidentified Slavic woman:
- Archbishop of Mainz from 17 December 954 until death[127]
- With Eadgyth of England, daughter of King Edward the Elder:[128]
- Liudolf (930 – 6 September 957) – Duke of Swabia from 950 to 954, Otto's expected successor from 947 until death[129]
- Liutgarde (932[130]–953) – married Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, in 947[131]
- With Rudolf II of Burgundy:[132]
- Henry (952–954)[75]
- Bruno (probably 954–957)[93]
- Matilda (954–999) – Abbess of Quedlinburg from 966 until death[133]
- Otto II (955 – 7 December 983) – Holy Roman Emperor from 973 until death[94]
Legacy
Ottonian Renaissance
A limited renaissance of the arts and architecture in the second half of the 10th century depended on the court patronage of Otto and his immediate successors. The Ottonian Renaissance was manifest in some revived cathedral schools, such as that of Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne, and in the production of illuminated manuscripts, the major art form of the age, from a handful of elite scriptoria, such as that at Quedlinburg Abbey, founded by Otto in 936. Extant manuscripts of this era are the Diploma Ottonianum, the Marriage Charter of Empress Theophanu, and the Gero Codex, an evangeliary drawn up around 969 for Archbishop Gero.[134] The Imperial abbeys and the Imperial courts became centers of religious and spiritual life; prestigious convents like Gandersheim and Quedlinburg were led by women of the royal family.[135]
Modern world
Otto I was selected as the main motif for a high value commemorative coin, the €100 Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire commemorative coin, issued in 2008 by the Austrian Mint. The obverse shows the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The reverse shows Emperor Otto I with Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome in the background, where his coronation took place.[136] Among others, three exhibitions in Magdeburg, opening in 2001, 2006 and 2012, have documented Otto's life and his influence on medieval European history.[137]
Ancestry
Ancestors of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor Abbess of Herford | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3. Matilda | |||||||||||||
14. unknown | |||||||||||||
7. Reinhild | |||||||||||||
15. unknown | |||||||||||||
Notes
- Berengar IIruled from 952 to 961 as "King of Italy" but as Otto's vassal.
- ^ The precise terms King of the Germans and Holy Roman Empire were not in common use until, respectively, the 11th and the 12th centuries.
- Res gestae saxonicae (in Latin) Book 2, chapter 2: "...; duces vero ministrabant. Lothariorum dux Isilberhtus, ad cuius potestatem locus ille pertinebat, omnia procurabat; Evurhardus mensae preerat, Herimannus Franco pincernis, Arnulfus equestri ordini et eligendis locandisque castris preerat; Sigifridus vero, Saxonum optimus et a rege secundus, gener quondam regis, tunc vero affinitate coniunctus, eo tempore procurabat Saxoniam, ne qua hostium interim irruptio accidisset, nutriensque iuniorem Heinricum secum tenuit." Bibliotheca Augustana.
- ^ From his stronghold in Swabia, located just north of the Alps, Liudolf was in closer proximity to the Italian border than his father in Saxony.
- ^ During the following days scattered parts of the Hungarian army were repeatedly attacked from nearby villages and castles; a second Bohemian force under Duke Boleslaus I was able to intercept and defeat them.[88]
- Res gestae saxonicae (in Latin) Book 3, chapter 49: "De triumpho regis. Triumpho celebri rex factus gloriosus ab exercitu pater patriae imperatorque appellatus est; ..." Bibliotheca Augustana.
References
- ^ Heather 2014, p. 281.
- ISBN 978-3-7954-2680-4.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 254.
- ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52148-2. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
- ^ Bachrach 2014, pp. 3, 5, 6, 12, 73, 250, 243.
- ^ a b Keller 2008, p. 26.
- ^ Keller 2008, pp. 24, 26.
- ^ a b Reuter 1991, p. 319.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 73–79.
- ^ Reuter 1991, pp. 137–139.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 140.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 45.
- ^ Beumann 2000, p. 42.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 97.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 40.
- ^ Bernhardt 1993, p. 3.
- ^ Arnold 1997, p. 136.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 148.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 43.
- ^ Beumann 2000, p. 54.
- ^ Vita Mathildis reginae posterior, chapter 9.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 158.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Beumann 2000, p. 58.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 152.
- ISBN 978-1-61039-014-9. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ISBN 978-3-86680-629-0. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ISBN 978-0-349-11972-4.
- ^ Gwatkin et al. 1922, p. 189.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 48.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 154.
- ^ Keller 2008, pp. 36, 55–56.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 158.
- ISBN 978-1-84383-927-9. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-582-49005-5.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 146.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 178.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 146–147.
- ISBN 978-1317872399.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 166.
- ^ Barraclough 1946, p. 37.
- ^ Ruckser, David. "Boleslav I (the Cruel) – c. 935–c. 972" (PDF). Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- ^ "Boje polabských Slovanů za nezávislost v letech 928–955" (in Czech). E-středověk.cz. 26 May 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
- ^ "Boleslav I." (in Czech). leccos.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- ^ Thietmar, Chronicon Thietmari Merseburgensis, II.34.
- ISBN 978-3-11-020794-1.
- ^ a b Becher 2012, p. 133.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 153.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, pp. 713–714.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, pp. 714–715.
- ^ Arnold 1997, p. 83.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 91.
- ^ Beumann 2000, p. 51.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 161.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Beumann 2000, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 163.
- ^ a b Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 186.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Zanarini, Marinella (1984). "I Canossa". In Castelnuovo, E. (ed.). Landfranco e Wiligelmo. Il duomo di Modena (in Italian). Panini. p. 54.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 188–189.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, pp. 732–733.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, pp. 733–734.
- ^ a b Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 189.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 735.
- ^ Cantor 1994, p. 213.
- S2CID 159994750. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-521-31980-5.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 155.
- ^ a b c Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 193.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 736.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 738.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 741.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, pp. 742–743.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 182.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 747.
- ^ Keller 2008, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 198–199.
- ^ Zimmermann 2010, p. 750.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 186–189.
- ^ "Otto I Defeats the Hungarians". A Source Book for Medieval History. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1907. Archived from the original on 10 December 2004. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 191–194.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Bóna, István (2000). "A kalandozó magyarság veresége. A Lech-mezei csata valós szerepe" (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
- ^ Reuter 1991, pp. 161–162.
- ^ Thompson 1928, p. 489.
- ^ a b Keller 2008, p. 45.
- ^ a b c Baldwin, Stewart. "Otto the Great". Medieval Genealogy. Retrieved 26 September 2014.
- ^ a b Seibert, Hubertus (1998). Otto II (in German). Historische Kommission, BAdW. pp. 660–662.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Reindel, Kurt. "Otto I, Holy Roman emperor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 207.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 219.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 208–209.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 220–221.
- ^ a b Reuter 1991, p. 321.
- ^ Althoff 2013, p. 114.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 56.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
- ^ McBrien 2000, p. 159.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 231.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 234–235.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 238–239.
- ^ Becher 2012, p. 239.
- ^ Becher 2012, pp. 239–240.
- ^ Althoff 2013, p. 125.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 221–224.
- ^ Duckett 1968, p. 90.
- ^ Reuter 1991, p. 159.
- ^ Collins 2010, p. 413.
- ^ a b Becher 2012, p. 250.
- ^ Cole, Joshua; Symes, Carol (2017). Western Civilzations. United States of America: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 196.
- ISBN 0-521-44482-9.
- ^ Bayerschmidt, Carl F. (1 November 1966). Hroswitha of Gandersheim. Her Life, Times and Works, and a Comprehensive Bibliography. Edited by Anne Lyon Haight. The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory.
- ^ Wilson, Katharina. Hrotsvit Of Gandersheim. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–10.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 228.
- ^ Reuter 1991, pp. 144–145.
- ^ a b Reuter 1991, p. 145.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 64.
- ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, p. 229.
- ^ )
- ^ Uhlirz, Karl (1898). Wilhelm (in German). Historische Kommission, BAdW. pp. 115–117.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Poole 1911, p. 313.
- ^ Schnith, Karl (1985). Liudolf (in German). Historische Kommission, BAdW. pp. 717 f.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Schutz 2010, p. 41.
- ^ Reuter 1991, pp. 154, 337.
- ^ Holböck 2002, p. 127.
- ^ Freise, Eckhard (1990). Mathilde (in German). Historische Kommission, BAdW. pp. 376–378.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Becher 2012, p. 210.
- ^ Bernhardt 1993, pp. 138–161.
- ^ "100 Euro gold coin – The Crown of the Holy Roman Empire". Austrian Mint. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
- ^ Germany.info (17 September 2012). "Major Exhibit on German King and Emperor Otto I in Magdeburg". German Missions in the United States. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Bibliography
- Althoff, Gerd (2013). Die Ottonen: Königsherrschaft ohne Staat (in German) (3rd ed.). ISBN 978-3-17-022443-8.
- Arnold, Benjamin (1997). Medieval Germany , 500–1300 A Political Interpretation. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-61091-6.
- Barraclough, Geoffrey (1946). The Origins of Modern Germany. Basil Blackwell.[ISBN missing]
- Becher, Matthias (2012). Otto der Große (in German). C.H.Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-63061-3.
- Bernhardt, John W. (1993). Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52183-3.
- ISBN 978-3-17-016473-4.
- ISBN 978-0-06-092553-6.
- ISBN 978-0-230-00673-7.
- ISBN 978-0-472-06172-3.
- ISBN 978-0-521-04534-6.
- Heather, Peter (2014). The Restoration of Rome: Barbarian Popes and Imperial Pretenders. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936852-5.
- Holböck, Ferdinand (2002). Married Saints and Blesseds: Through the Centuries. Ignatius Press.
- Keller, Hagen (2008). Die Ottonen (in German) (4th ed.). C.H.Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-44746-4.
- Keller, Hagen; Althoff, Gerd (2008). Die Zeit der späten Karolinger und der Ottonen: 888–1024. Gebhardt Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte Band 3 (in German). Klett-Cotta. ISBN 978-3-608-60003-2.
- ISBN 978-0-06-087807-8.
- Poole, Reginald L. (April 1911). "Burgundian Notes". The English Historical Review. 26 (102): 310–317. .
- ISBN 978-0-582-49034-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4438-1966-4.
- Thompson, James Westfall (1928). Feudal Germany (2 vols.). University of Chicago Press.[ISBN missing]
- ISBN 978-1-145-40896-8.
Primary sources
- ISBN 978-3-7752-5388-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-4926-2.
- Vita Mathildis reginae posterior (c. 1003, written for Matilda's great-grandson Henry II), ed. Bernd Schütte. Die Lebensbeschreibungen der Königin Mathilde. MGH SS rer. Germ. in usum scholarum 66. Hannover, 1994. 143–202. Edition by Georg Heinrich Pertz. MGH SS 4: 282–302; tr. in Sean Gilsdorf, Queenship and Sanctity, 88–127. Digital MGH archive.
Further reading
- Althoff, Gerd; Keller, Hagen (1985). Heinrich I. und Otto der Grosse: Neubeginn auf karolingischem Erbe (in German). Muster-Schmidt. ISBN 978-3-7881-0122-0.
- Bachrach, David (2009). "Exercise of royal power in early medieval Europe: the case of Otto the Great 936–73". Early Medieval Europe. 17 (4). Wiley-Blackwell: 389–419. S2CID 161175755.
- Gallagher, John Joseph (1938). Church and state in Germany under Otto the Great (936–973). Catholic University of America. OCLC 3235092.
- Hill, Boyd H. Jr. (1972). Medieval Monarchy in Action: The German Empire from Henry I to Henry IV. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-3890-4652-3.
- Hiller, Helmut (1980). Otto der Große und seine Zeit (in German). List. ISBN 978-3-4717-7847-0.
- JSTOR 2841974. (subscription required)
- Jaeger, C. Stephen (2010). "Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim". The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 817. ISBN 978-0-1986-6262-4.
- ISBN 978-0-3000-6048-5.
- Laudage, Johannes (2001). Otto der Große: (912–973). Eine Biographie (in German). Friedrich Pustet. ISBN 978-3-7917-1750-0.
- ISBN 978-1-1787-7378-1.
- ISBN 978-1-13905572-7.
- Schneidmüller, Bernd (2003). Schneidmüller, Bernd; Weinfurter, Stefan (eds.). Otto I. Die deutschen Herrscher des Mittelalters. Historische Porträts von Heinrich I bis Maximilian I (919–1519) (in German). C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-4065-0958-2.
- Wies, Ernst W. (1998). Otto der Große. Kämpfer und Beter (in German) (3rd ed.). Bechtle. ISBN 978-3-7628-0483-3.
- Zeller, Bernhard (2006). Liudolfinger als fränkische Könige? Überlegungen zur sogenannten Continuatio Reginonis. Corradini, Richard: Text & identities in the early middle ages, Denkschriften, 344. Band. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters (in German). Vol. 12. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. pp. 137–151. ISBN 978-3-7001-3747-4.
External links
- "Charter given by Emperor Otto for the monastery Hilwartshausen showing the Emperor's seal, 12.2.960". Collections of the "Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden". Philipp University of Marburg. "Guest-Access" and further information.
- Literature by and about Otto I. in the German National Library catalogue
- Urkunde Ottos I. für Stift Geseke, 25. Juni 958, "digitalised image". Photograph Archive of Old Original Documents (Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden). University of Marburg.