Regency of Algiers

Coordinates: 36°47′6″N 3°3′45″E / 36.78500°N 3.06250°E / 36.78500; 3.06250
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Ottoman Algeria
)

Regency of Algiers
دولة الجزائر (
Arabic
)
1516–1830
Flag of Algiers[1]
Flag
(1516–1830)
Motto: الجزائر المحروسة
Algiers the well-guarded
Sultanate
1519–1659: Viceroyalty
1659–1830: Stratocracy[9][10]
(Political status)
Pasha 
• 1516–1518
Aruj Barbarossa
• 1710–1718
Baba Ali Chaouch
• 1818–1830
Hussein Dey
Historical era
Invasion of Algiers
1830
Population
• 1830
3,000,000–5,000,000
CurrencyMajor coins:
mahboub (sultani)
budju
aspre
Minor coins:
saïme
pataque-chique
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Hafsids of Béjaïa
Kingdom of Tlemcen
French Algeria
Beylik of Titteri
Beylik of Constantine
Western Beylik
Emirate of Abdelkader
Igawawen
Kingdom of Beni Abbas
Sultanate of Tuggurt
Awlad Sidi Shaykh
Today part ofAlgeria

The Regency of Algiers

Arabic: دولة الجزائر, romanizedDawlat al-Jaza'ir) was an early modern tributary state of the Ottoman Empire on the Barbary Coast of North Africa from 1516 to 1830. Founded by the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa (Also known as Aruj and Khayr ad-Din), the regency was a formidable pirate base infamous for its corsairs, first ruled by Ottoman viceroys, and later a sovereign military republic[b] that plundered and waged maritime holy war
against Christian powers.

The Algerian regency emerged during the 16th-century

Ottoman sultan could not stop these attacks so the European powers negotiated with the Regency directly and conducted strong sea operations against it, but the pirates expanded across the Atlantic and the Barbary slave trade reached its apex in Algiers. After the janissary coup
in 1659, elected local rulers emerged.

Wars with France,

privateering. Increased demands from Algiers for tribute caused the Barbary wars, in which the American, British and Dutch navies engaged the Barbary corsairs at the beginning of the 19th century, and decisively defeated Algiers for the first time. Internal central authority weakened due to political intrigue, failed harvests and the decline of privateering. This prompted violent tribal revolts, mainly led by maraboutic orders such as the Darqawis and Tijanis. France took advantage of this situation to invade in 1830, leading to the French conquest of Algeria and eventually to French colonial rule
until 1962.

History

Establishment (1516–1533)

Spanish expansion in the Maghreb

Conquest of Oran, 19th century painting by Francisco Jover y Casanova. Cardinal Cisneros in red

In ports conquered along the

trade routes that passed through Béjaïa, Algiers, Oran and Tlemcen. Control over this trade and its gold and slaves became essential to the Spanish treasury.[15]

The Maghreb was no longer the middleman between Europe and Africa it had been, especially in gold. The loss of this trade led to political fragmentation,

merchant class, and also the Spanish capacity to collect taxes.[18]

Barbarossa brothers arrive

Ottoman

Bejaïa asked them for help in dislodging the Spanish.[20] They failed however due to Bejaïa's formidable fortifications. Aruj was wounded while trying to storm the city, and his arm had to be amputated.[21] He realized that his forces' position in the valley of La Goulette hampered their efforts against the Spaniards and moved them to Jijel, a center of the trade between Africa and Italy occupied since 1260 by the Genoese, whose inhabitants had asked him for help. Aruj conquered the city in 1514, establishing a base of operations there and formalizing an alliance with the tribal leaders of Kabylia.[22][23] In 1514 Aruj attacked Bejaïa again with a larger force in the spring of the following year, but withdrew when his ammunition ran out and the emir of Tunis refused to supply him with any more.[23] He did however succeed in capturing hundreds of Spanish prisoners.[24]

Aruj Berbarossa, Sultan of Algiers, 1590s
Model of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha's flagship "The Algerian" at the Istanbul Naval Museum, October 2013
Hayreddin Barbarossa, first beylerbey of Algiers

New masters of Algiers

Birds-eye town map of Algiers, published in 1575 by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg

The

Algerine population and their leader, sheikh Salim al-Tumi of the Thaaliba, to recognize Catholic king Ferdinand II of Aragon as sovereign, pay yearly tribute, release Christian prisoners, forsake piracy, and prevent the enemies of Spain from entering their harbor.[25] To monitor Algiers' compliance with these pledges and observe the residents of Algiers, Pedro Navarro captured the island of Peñon, within artillery range of the city, and put a fort there garrisoned with 200 men.[26] The Algerians sought to break free of the Spanish and took advantage of the excitement over the death of King Ferdinand to send a delegation from Algiers to Jijel in 1516 seeking help from Aruj and his men.[22]

Aruj set out at the head of 5,000

galliots. They rendezvoused in Algiers,[28] whose population celebrated their arrival and hailed them as heroes.[29] Hayreddin bombarded the Spanish Peñón of Algiers from sea, and Aruj took Cherchell, where he eliminated another Turkish captain who had been cooperating with Andalusians.[22] Aruj was not immediately able to recover the Peñón, and his presence often undermined al-Tumi's authority, so the latter eventually sought the help of the Spaniards to drive him out. Oruc assassinated him,[30] proclaimed himself Sultan of Algiers, and raised his banners in green, yellow, and red above the forts of the city.[31][32][33] The Spaniards reacted by sending the governor of Oran, Diego de Vera, against Algiers in late September 1516 with 8000 troops.[34] Aruj allowed De Vera's forces to land then moved against them, taking advantage of the northern wind to pursue them as they retreated, drowning and killing many, and also capturing many prisoners in a total defeat for the Spaniards, and a momentous victory for Aruj,[34] which further expanded his influence in the Algerian heartland.[35]

Campaign of Tlemcen: Death of Aruj

engraving depicting battle scene. Caption in French says "Muslims armed with everything they can get their hands on fall on the Christians"
Aruj Raïs in combat, by Léopold Flameng

Aruj attacked Spanish vassal Prince of Ténès Hamid bin Abid and seized his city,[34] vanquishing his army at the Battle of Oued Djer in June 1517. He killed the prince and expelled the Spaniards stationed at Ténès. Aruj then divided his kingdom into two parts: an eastern part based in Dellys to be ruled by his brother Hayreddin, and a western part centered on the city of Algiers, to be ruled by him personally.[36] While Aruj was in Ténès, a delegation from Tlemcen arrived to complain about conditions there and the growing threat of the Spanish, exacerbated by squabbling between the Zayyanid princes over the throne.[22] Abu Hammou III [fr] had seized power in Tlemcen, expelled his nephew, Abu Zayan III [fr] and imprisoning him. Aruj appointed Hayreddin as regent over Algiers and its surroundings[37] and marched towards Tlemcen, capturing the castle of the Banu Rashid along the way, and to protect his rear garrisoned it with a large force led by his brother Isaac. Aruj and his troops entered the city and released Abu Zayan from prison, restoring him to his throne, before progressing westward along the Moulouya to bring the Beni Amer and Beni Snassen [simple] tribes under his authority.[38] Abu Zayan began to conspire against Aruj, who arrested and executed him. Meanwhile, the deposed Abu Hammou III fled to Oran to beg for help from his former enemies the Spaniards to retake his throne.[39] The Spaniards chose to help him, capturing the Banu Rashid castle and killing Isaac in late January 1518. Then they laid siege to Tlmecen. Aruj locked himself inside the Mechouar palace for several days to avoid the hostile populace, which eventually opened the gates for the Spanish.[38] Aruj attempted to flee Tlemcen, but the Spaniards pursued and killed him along with his Ottoman companions.[40] His head was then sent to Spain, where it was paraded across its cities and those of Europe. His robes were sent to the Church of St. Jerome in Cordoba, where they were kept as a trophy.[41]

Algiers joins the Ottoman Empire

Hayreddin Barbarossa (Anon, circa 1580)

Hayreddin was proclaimed Sultan of Algiers in late 1519.[42] He increasingly felt a need for Ottoman support to maintain his possessions around Algiers.[43] By October 1519, a delegation of Algerian notables and ulemas had been instructed to propose to Ottoman sultan Selim I that Algiers join the Ottoman Empire,[44] making clear to the sultan the strategic importance of Algiers in the Western Mediterranean.[42] Algiers officially became part of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman I in the spring of 1521,[45] even though Constantinople found the idea of integrating a territory so distant and so close to Spain quite perilous.

The Sublime Porte named Hayreddin Barbarossa

janissaries.[42]

Because of this voluntary membership in the Ottoman Empire, Algiers was considered an estate of the empire rather than a province. The important role in Ottoman maritime wars of the Regency fleet made Algiers the spearhead of Ottoman power in the western Mediterranean.[43][46]

Reconquest of Algiers

After defeating Barbarossa at the Battle of Issers with the joint Kuku-Hafsid forces then capturing Algiers in 1520, Sultan Belkadi ruled over Algiers for five years (1520–1525).[47][48][49] Hayreddin retreated to Jijel in 1521 and allied himself with the Kabyle people of Beni Abbas, rivals of Kuku.[48][50]

Taking advantage of the corsairs' reputation as "holy warriors" and social divisions between urban and rural populations, Hayreddin bolstered his ranks with Andalusi refugees and local tribesmen,[48] taking Collo in 1521, Annaba and Constantine in 1523.[51] He crossed the mountains of Kabylia without incident, and faced Belkadi in Thénia. Belkadi was killed by his own soldiers before a battle could take place.[52] The debacle caused by this assassination cleared the road to Algiers, whose population had complained about Belkadi and opened the gates for Hayreddin in 1525.[53][54]

But Algiers was still threatened by the Spaniards, who controlled the port from the Peñon. The Spanish commander, Don Martin de Vargas, rejected a demand for surrender with his garrison of 200 soldiers. Hayreddin bombarded the Peñon and captured it on 27 May 1529.[55][52] Using the Peñon debris, Morisco stonemasons and Christian captive labor, Hayreddin attached the islets to the shore by creating and building a causeway 220 yards (200 m) long, over 80 feet (24 m) wide and 13 feet (4 m) high from a stone breakwater,[47][56] enlarging the harbor into what became a major port and the headquarters of the Algerian corsair fleet.[57]

Morisco rescue missions

Moors of Algiers, by Jacob Van Meurs (1668)

After he successfully repelled Andrea Doria's Genoese navy from landing at Cherchell in 1531,[58] Barbarossa sent ships under Aydın Reis to help Spanish Muslim Moriscos flee the Spanish Inquisition,[55] ferrying about 70,000 refugees to the shores of Algiers.[59][60][61] When there weren't enough ships to carry all the refugees the pirates would shuttle the refugees down the coast to a safer place, leaving them with guards, and go back to rescue another shipload. In Algiers, the Morisco refugees settled in the heights of the city close to the kasbah, in the area known today as the "Tagarin". Others settled in Algerian cities to the east and west, where they built, as Leo Africanus said, "2,000 houses, and among them were those who settled in Morocco and Tunisia. The Maghreb people learned much of their craft, imitated their luxury, and rejoiced in them".[61]

Hayreddin's successors (1534–1580)

Barbarossa raided the coasts of Spain and Italy, taking thousands of prisoners in Mahon and Naples,[60] where he captured Italian countess Giulia Gonzaga. However she managed to escape shortly after.[62] The sultan called Barbarossa to the Porte in 1533 to become Kapudan Pasha, or Admiral. He left Hasan Agha in command as his deputy in Algiers and went to Constantinople.[63] Two years later in June 1535, Charles V of Spain conquered Tunis, held by Hayreddin at that time.[64]

Barbary corsairs in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), Laureys a Castro
The Battle of Algiers. Oil on canvas (1541) Antwerp school. Depicts shipwreck of Christian ships in the Bay of Algiers
Algerian expansion
Maltese Knights assault the Bab Azzoun gate in Algiers, 1541

In October 1541, Charles led another expedition, this time against Algiers, seeking to end the Barbary pirates' reign of terror in the western Mediterranean.

Maltese knights from the city, while the increasing winds blew the Spanish ships onto the rocky shore.[68] Charles V made a difficult retreat under constant assault by Berber cavalry back to the remaining ships in Cap Matifou.[66]

Sources vary on the Spanish losses, going from 8,000[69] to 12,000 men,[70] and more than 150 ships, leaving war material, including 200 cannons, which would be recovered to furnish the ramparts of Algiers.[71] The slave market of Algiers was filled with 4,000 prisoners.[72][69] Hasan Agha received the title of Pasha as a reward,[73] then sent a punitive expedition against the Kabyles of Kuku in 1542.[74]

Successive expeditions tried to gain control of the city of

conquered Touggourt and Ouargla,[78][79] making them tributaries.[80] After leaving a permanent Ottoman garrison in Biskra,[77] Salah Rais expelled the Portuguese from the peñon of Valez and left a garrison there.[78]

In 1555, Salah Rais expelled the Spanish from

Count Alcaudete's 12,000 men in Mostaganem three years later,[82] setting in stone the Ottoman control of North Africa.[83] This was followed by a failed attempt to take Oran in 1563,[84] in which the independent Kabylian kingdoms had significant involvement.[85]

The kingdom of Beni Abbas managed to maintain its independence, repelling the Ottomans in the First Battle of Kalaa of the Beni Abbès then the Battle of Oued-el-Lhâm, and lasting until early 18th century.[86] Algiers had finally reached its 1830 borders towards the end of the 16th century.[87]

War against the Spanish-Moroccan Alliance
Uluç Ali Pasha (Occhiali), beylerbey of Algiers
John of Austria in armour, by Alonso Sánchez Coello, 1567

The Saadi dynasty of Morocco sought to expand eastward,[88] taking Tlemcen and Mostaganem and reaching the Chelif River.[79] These incursions into western Algeria resulted in the campaign of Tlemcen in 1551, where Hasan Pasha defeated the Moroccans and cemented Ottoman control in western Algeria.[79] This was followed by the Battle of Taza (1553) and the capture of Fez in 1554, in which Salah Reis defeated the Moroccan army, and conquered Morocco as far west as Fez, then put Ali Abu Hassun in place as ruler and vassal to the Ottoman sultan.[89] The Saadi ruler Mohammed al-Shaykh concluded an alliance with Spain, but his armies were again removed from Tlemcen in 1557.[90]

After the failed

Maltese Knights, saving what remained of the defeated Ottoman navy.[93]

Christian forces under the victor of Lepanto John of Austria were able to retake Tunis in 1573, leaving 8,000 men in the Spanish presidio of La Goletta.[94] But Uluç Ali reconquered Tunis in 1574.[95] With the capture of Fez in 1576, Caïd Ramdan [fr], pasha of Algiers, put Abd al-Malik on the throne as an Ottoman vassal ruler of the Saadi Sultanate.[96][97]

During the rule of Uluç Ali's former subordinate

Gibraltar strait in a single season, and raiding Granada brought 4000 slaves to Algiers,[100] including Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes, whose time as a captive of Dragut inspired his novel Don Quixote.[101]

In 1578, Hassan Veneziano sent troops to

Saadi-allied tribes from Tafilalt, venturing deep into the Sahara.[102][103] Kapudan Pasha Uluj Ali's campaign against Ahmad al-Mansur was cancelled in 1581;[98] Al-Mansur at first vehemently refused subordination to Ottoman sultan Murad III, then sent an embassy to the Porte and signed a treaty that protected Moroccan de facto independence in exchange for paying annual tribute.[104] Still, Figuig was Ottoman Algerian by 1584.[105]

17th century: Golden Age of Algiers

An Algerine Ship off a Barbary Port, by Andries van Eertvelt (1590–1652)
Slave market in Algiers, 17th century

Algiers grew increasingly independent from Constantinople and engaged in widespread piracy in the 17th century in a period that became known as the "Golden age of Corsairs":[106] In the Mediterranean, the corsairs raided the Roman countryside, taking captives in Civitavecchia.[107] The expulsion of the Moriscos bolstered the corsairs with new sailors who painfully weakened Spain, ravaging its mainland and domains in Sicily and the islands of Italy, where people were taken captive en masse.[108]

They also adopted the use of round-bottomed vessels, which were introduced by Dutch renegade sailors such as

trade routes to India and America, the corsairs disrupted the commerce of all enemy nations. In 1616, Reis Mourad the younger plundered the coasts of Iceland and brought back 400 captives. In 1619 the corsairs ravaged Madeira. The slave raid of Suðuroy took place in 1629, and in 1631, corsairs famously sacked Baltimore in Ireland, blocked the English Channel, and seized vessels in the North Sea.[111][112]

Algiers' port and navy grew and its population reached 100,000 to 125,000 in the 17th century,[6] due to its pirate economy of forced exchange and paid protection for the safety of crews, cargo and ships at sea.[113][114] The Maghrebi population became wealthy from selling seized ships and cargo through merchants in Genoa, Livorno, Amsterdam and Rotterdam.[107] and from ransoms paid for the release of prisoners captured on the high seas.[113] Homes and palaces were built with "the most precious objects and delicacies from the European and Eastern worlds", and Algiers had between 25,000 and 36,000 slaves of many nationalities.[106][115]

Battle of a French ship of the line and two galleys of the Barbary corsairs, Théodore Gudin (1802–1880)
Combat between Portuguese vessels and Barbary pirates in 1685, Peter Monamy (–1749)
HMS Mary Rose in battle with seven Algerian pirate ships on 28 December 1669, Willem van de Velde the Younger
Action Between a Dutch Fleet and Barbary Pirates, Lieve Verschuier

Ottoman suzerainty weakens

Plan and appearance of the Bastion of France on the Barbary Coast
A capidji (Imperial envoy) from the Ottoman sultan to Algiers, by Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang (17th century)
Ali Bitchin Mosque, Algiers. (photo taken in 2017)

In the 16th century, France signed capitulation treaties with the Ottomans, formalizing the Franco-Ottoman Alliance.[116] In 1547, French trade rights and coral fishing were established in Algiers.[117] The French trade post in eastern Algeria, known as the Bastion of France, was taken over by the French "Lenche Company [Fr]".[118] Believing it gave too many privileges to foreigners, Algiers disapproved of Constantinople's foreign policy.[119]

The authority of the

Murat Rais,[123] attacked the Bastion of France in 1604, then seized 6,000 sequins that Sultan Ahmed I had sent to French merchants to compensate for losses in the raid,[124] under the pretext of breaching agreements regarding wheat exports, tribute payments, and violation of good faith in trading with Moors.[118] The sultan ordered the new pasha Mohammed Koucha [fr] to have Khider Pasha strangled in 1605.[124]

The Porte renewed a treaty in May 20, 1605 that gave more privileges to France;[125] Clause 14 of the treaty authorized the French to use force against Algiers if the treaty was broken.[122] The French king Henry IV's envoy came to Algiers with a firman from the Porte ordering the French captives released and the Bastion rebuilt.[125] Mohammed Koucha Pasha agreed, but the janissaries revolted, imprisoned the Pasha and tortured him to death in 1606.[125] The dîwân refused to authorize the reconstruction of the Bastion, but agreed to release their French captives only on condition that Muslims detained in Marseilles also be released, a sign of how differently Algiers and Constantinople saw relations with France.[122][126]

Ali Bitchin Raïs

Raïs Ali Bitchin, became admiral and head of the tai'fa community of corsair captains in 1621.[127] Immensely rich, He built a mosque and two palaces in Algiers, owned 500 slaves and married the daughter of the king of Kuku.[128] In 1638 Sultan Murad IV called the corsairs up against Venice. A storm forced their ships to shelter at Valona, where the Venetians attacked and destroyed part of their fleet. To their great anger, the sultan refused to compensate the corsairs for their losses Claiming they were not under his service.[129][130]

Sultan Ibrahim IV wanted to arrest Ali Bitchin for refusing to join the Cretan War, but the population rose up against the pasha.[131] The dîwân demanded that he pay the janissaries' wages, so Ali Bitchin took refuge in Kabylia for nearly a year, then returned in force to Algiers,[131] claiming the title of pasha and demand from Sultan Mehmed IV 16,000 sultanis in exchange for 16 galleys.[132] The sultan appointed another pasha in 1645. When he arrived, Ali Bitchin suddenly died, possibly poisoned.[133][131]

Foreign policy

Map of the Mediterranean balance of power in the 17th century. An archer threatens Philip IV of Spain with his bow while Louis XIII is self-absorbed

The Habsburg monarchy signed a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire in the early 17th century, ending the long Turkish War, Algiers refused to abide by the capitulation treaties between Europe and Constantinople, however, prompting European powers to negotiate treaties directly with Algiers on commerce, tribute payments and slave ransoms.[119] in an acknowledgement of the autonomy of Algiers despite its formal subordination to the Sublime Porte.[134]

Algiers couldn't be at peace with all European states at the same time without weakening privateering; a religious, codified and strictly controlled form of warfare engaged by Algiers,[135][136] conferring on its foreign military elites an international legitimacy;[136] Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the jus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs".[137]

Algeria's foreign relations strategy for the European powers was to play its adversaries off against each other and avert any coalition that could pose a serious threat.

shipping from nations at peace with it.[139] In fact, the lucrative cabotage business between Mediterranean ports required peaceful relations with Algiers.[140] European vessels carried passports issued by their diplomatic missions in Algiers to protect them from Algerian pirates.[119] Thus, a treaty with the Dutch in 1663 led to privateering against French vessels, then a treaty with France in 1670 prompted Algiers to break off relations with England and the Dutch.[141]

This would in turn give internal legitimacy to the military rulers of Algiers as champions of jihad,[134] while gaining revenues from naval spoils and tribute payments.[142]

Kingdom of France

France began direct negotiations with Algiers in 1617 after more than 900 ships were taken and 8000 Frenchmen enslaved,[143] They reached an impasse however in part over two cannons Dutch corsair Simon Reis had taken with him to give to Charles, Duke of Guise when he left the Algerian navy in 1607.[144] A treaty was signed in 1619,[145] and another in 1628.[146][118] Algerians undertook to:[147][148]

  • Respect France's vessels and coast
  • Prohibit the sale of goods seized from French ships in their ports
  • Allow French traders to safely live in Algiers
  • Recognize and protect French concessions at the Bastion de France
  • Allow trade in leather and wax.

Sanson Napollon [it], head of the Bastion de France, was able to supply Marseille with all the wheat it needed. In 1629 however, fifteen corsairs from an Algerian ship were massacred and the rest taken prisoner.[149] In 1637, Ali Bitchin razed the French fortress in response. "Never the said Bastion would recover, neither by request of the King of France, nor by command of the Grand Sultan, and that the first who would speak of it would lose his head", the dîwân declared.[150] In 1640, a new treaty returned to France its previous holdings in Africa, however, and coral fishermen obtained assistance and security.[150] in exchange for paying the pasha nearly 17,000 pounds.[144][151]

Dutch engraving "During the French bombardment of Algiers, the French consul is loaded into a cannon by the Algerians and killed.", Amsterdam Historic Museum (1698)
Dutch satirical medal translated as "the friend of the Turks, the friend of the Algerians, the friend of the Barbarians, hateful enemy of the Christians" while on the right Louis XIV kneels before the Ottoman sultan and the dey of Algiers

France was engulfed in the

reconnoitre
the Algerian coasts with a view to a permanent installation. [122] First Minister of State Jean-Baptiste Colbert sent large forces to occupy Collo in the spring of 1663, but the expedition failed. In July 1664 King Louis XIV ordered another military campaign against Jijel, which took nearly three months and also ended in defeat.[152] France was forced to negotiate with Algiers and sign the 7 May 1666 agreement, stipulating the implementation of the 1628 treaty.[153][154] Louis XIV, who sought to have the French flag respected in the Mediterranean, ordered several intense bombing campaigns against Algiers from 1682 to 1688 in what is known as the Franco-Algerian war.[107] After fierce resistance led by Dey Hussein Mezzomorto, a conclusive peace treaty was finally signed.[155]

Kingdom of England
fireship set on seven captured ships in Béjaïa on 18 May 1671, by Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707)

English admiral

anti-counterfeiting and mandatory 'Algerian passports' on southbound merchant ships to guarantee each ship's authentic registry to Algerian pirate vessels.[159] Fighting with a combined Anglo-Dutch force in 1670 cost Algiers several ships and 2200 sailors near Cape Spartel, and English ships burned seven other ships in Bougie. A regime change followed in Algiers.[160]

From 1674 to 1681 Algiers captured around 350 ships and 3000 to 5000 slaves.[161][162] But since the French were also attacking them, they signed a peace treaty with Charles II on 10 April 1682 where he recognised that his subjects were slaves in Algiers.[162]

Dutch Republic

The English peace treaty with Algiers affected Dutch shipping. Merchants arriving at The Hague all indicated that the Dutch were losing trade to the English.[163][164] From 1661 to 1664, the Dutch sent Michiel de Ruyter and Cornelis Tromp on several expeditions to Algiers in an attempt to make the Algerians accept the free ships, free goods principle.[165][164] Although the Algerians had accepted the principle in 1663 they went back on their agreement the next year. De Ruyter was again dispatched to Algiers, but the beginning of hostilities with England, leading up to the Second Anglo-Dutch War, cut his mission short.[166]

A peace agreement signed in 1679 was the result of four years of negotiations, and until 1686, precariously maintained a peace for Dutch trade with southern Europe,[167][164] at the price of tribute to Algiers in the form of cannons, gunpowder and naval stores, which France and England both condemned.[168] But peace did not last. Between 1714 and 1720, 40 ships were captured, and their seamen taken captive.[169]

After lengthy negotiations and several military expeditions the Dutch finally achieved peace.[169] The new Dutch consul in Algiers, Ludwig Hameken, asked for a Mediterranean pass,[170] and agreed to pay a yearly tribute for the next century. The Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729) distracted the British from their trade rivalries, and the Dutch managed to provide stiff competition. When the war ended however, British shipping again flourished in the Mediterranean, and Dutch trade fell off.[170]

Maghrebi wars (1678–1756)

Mid 17th century map of North Africa by Jan Janssonius
Map of North Africa. Relief shown pictorially. Boundaries hand-colored. (c. 1650) Jan Janssonius (1588–1664)

Algeria's relations with other Maghreb countries were troubled most of the time,[171] for several historical reasons.[87]

Algiers considered Tunisia a dependency because it had annexed it to the Ottoman Empire, which made the appointment of its pashas a prerogative of the Algerian beylerbeys.[172] Tunis had inherited ambitions in the Constantine region from the Hafsid era, and rejected Algerian suzerainty. Morocco opposed the Ottomans with determination, and saw Algiers as a danger to its independence. It also had ancient ambitions in western Algeria and especially in Tlemcen.[171]

Both states also supported rebellions in Algiers. In 1692 inhabitants of the capital and neighboring tribes tried to depose the Ottomans while Dey Hadj Chabane was campaigning in Morocco. They set fire to several buildings and some of the ships at anchor there.[173]

Tunisian campaigns

Tunis adamantly refused subordination to Algeria. Beginning in 1590, the dîwân of Tunisian janissaries revolted against Algiers, and the country became a vassal of Constantinople itself.[171] A peace treaty concluded on 17 May 1628, following an Algerian victory was devoted to the delimitation of the borders between them.[174] In 1675, Murad II Bey of Tunis died. This unleashed a twenty-year civil war between his sons.[175] Dey Chabane took this opportunity to lead victorious invasions of Tunis, such as the Battle of Kef, and the conquest of Tunis.[176] Fed up with this situation, Tunisians revolted and signed an alliance with the Sultan of Morocco, which led to the Maghrebi war.[87]

Bey of Constantine dispatched a force of 7,000 men led by Danish slave Hark Olufs to invade Tunis in 1735 and install Ali Pasha as its bey,[180] who recognised he was a vassal of Algiers and paid an annual tribute to the dey.[180][181]

In another campaign directed against Tunis in 1756,[182] Ali I Pasha was deposed and brought to Algiers in chains, then strangled by supporters of his cousin and successor Muhammad I ar-Rashid on 22 September. Tunis became a tributary of Algiers, recognising its suzerainty for more than 50 years, and sending oil to light the mosques of Algiers every year.[183][184]

Moroccan campaigns

Sultan of Morocco with the Black Guard, Eugène Delacroix
Two cloaked and turbaned horsemen carrying firearms, accompanied by pack animals
Algerian Spahi cavalry, Guillaume Régamey [fr] (1837–1875)

In 1678, Moulay Ismail mounted an expedition to Tlemcen. He assembled his contingents on the Upper Moulouya, joined by the tribes of Orania, and advanced as far as the Chelif region to give battle there.[185] The Ottoman Algerians brought in artillery, and routed the auxiliary tribes of the Moroccan sovereign, who ended up negotiating with Dey Chabane and fixing the border at the Moulouya, where it remained throughout the Saadian period.[186] In 1691, Moulay Ismail launched a new offensive against Orania, and Dey Chabane defeated the attackers on the Moulouya and marched on Fez.[187] Moulay Ismail reportedly prostrated before the Dey in his tent, saying: "You are the knife and I the flesh that you can cut".[188][173] He agreed to pay tribute and sign the treaty of Oujda which confirmed the Moulouya river border.[189] In 1694, the Ottoman sultan invited that of Morocco to cease his attacks against Algiers.[186]

In 1700, after coming to an agreement with the Tunisian Muradids that they were to simultaneously attack Constantine, the Moroccan sovereign launched a new expedition against Orania with an army composed mostly of

without succeeding in settling them permanently.[192]

Dey Muhammad ben Othman Pasha (1766–1792)

Muhammad ben Othman Pasha became dey in 1766 at the will of his predecessor, Dey Ali Bousbaa, ruling over a powerful and prosperous Algiers for a full quarter of a century until he died in 1791.[197] He was a "rational, courageous, and determined man who adhered to working according to Islamic law, loved jihad, was austere even with regard to public treasury funds", according to Al-Zahar's narration.[198]

Muhammad Othman succeeded with most of the problems he faced throughout his rule, especially with Spanish and Portuguese raids. He fortified the city of Algiers with a number of forts and towers, such as the Borj Sardinah, Borj Djedid, and Borj Ras Ammar. He repaired the Sayyida mosque next to Jenina Palace, which had been damaged by Spanish bombardment. He brought water to the city, and supplied it to all the castles, towers, fortresses, and mosques. He also built springs in the center of the city for people to drink from, and set up a special financial reserve for this water to take care of its streams and maintain them.[198]

The dey managed to keep the janissaries in check, developped trade,[197] secured regular tribute payment from European states,[197][142] and paid attention to strengthening the Algerian fleet and supplying it with men, weapons, and ships. Several captains became famous during his reign, such as Raïs Hamidou, Reis Haj Suleiman, Reis Ibn Yunus and Reis Hajj Muhammad, who according to Al-Zahar, commanded about 24,000 men during his various maritime incursions.[199]

Pacification of the Regency

The population revolted in Blida, Al-Houdna and Isser, in some oases of the south and in Al-Nammasha in the Aurès.[200] The dey started his rule by leading campaigns against the tribes of Felissa in Kabylia, which were in constant rebellion. A first attempt in 1767 ended in failure and the tribes managed to reach the gates of Algiers itself. Nine years later however, the dey surrounded them in their mountains and made their leaders submit.[201] The eastern Salah Bey ben Mostefa of Constantine launched several expeditions to the south. In 1785, He marched through the Amour Range, then stormed Ain Beida and Aïn Madhi, and occupied all of Laghouat. He then received tribute from the Ibadi community of the south. In 1789, Salah bey occupied the city of Touggourt, and appointed Ben-Gana as "Sheikh of the Arabs" and imposed heavy tribute on the Berber Beni Djellab dynasty there.[202]

War with Denmark

Dey Muhammad Othman Pasha increased the annual royalties paid by the Netherlands, Venice, Sweden and Denmark. They accepted, except for Denmark, which assigned

Frederick Kaas to lead four ships of the line, two bomb galiots and two frigates, against the city of Algiers in 1770. The bombardment ended in failure.[203] Shortly after, Algerian pirates attacked Dano-Norwegian ships for a whole year.[204] Denmark submitted to the dey's conditions and agreed to pay 2.5 million dollars in compensation for the damage to the city, and provide 44 cannons, 500 quintals of gunpowder, and 50 sails. It also agreed to ransom its captives and pay royalties every two years with various gifts to statesmen.[205]

War with Spain

Francisco José de Goya
Spanish attack on Oran
The Treaty of 1791 ended almost 300 years of war
Algiers under fire in 1784 from Spanish and Maltese men o'war
. (18th century). British School.


Taking advantage of the
War of the Spanish Succession, western bey Mustapha Bouchelaghem captured Oran and Mers-el Kebir in 1708.[206] but eventually lost them back after a successful campaign led by the Duke of Montemar in 1732.[207] In 1775, Irish admiral Alejandro O'Reilly led a Spanish expedition to reduce Mediterranean pirate activity. The assault's spectacular failure dealt a humiliating blow to the Spanish military reorganisation.[208]

From 1 to 9 August 1783, a Spanish squadron of 25 ships bombarded Algiers, but failed to overcome its defenses. The Spanish squadron of four ships of the line and six frigates inflicted no significant damage on the city and had to withdraw.[209] The commander of this fleet and that of 1784 was Spanish Admiral Antonio Barceló. A European league of 130 ships from the Spanish Empire, Kingdom of Portugal, Republic of Venice and Order of Saint John of Jerusalem bombarded Algiers on 12 July 1784. This failed, and the Spanish squadron fell back from the city's defenses.[210] Dey Mohamed ben-Osman asked for an 1,000,000 pesos to conclude a peace in 1785. Negotiations (1785–87) followed for a lasting peace between Algiers and Madrid.[211]

After a massive earthquake erupted in 1790, the reconquest of Oran and Mers El Kébir began.[212][142] Oran was a concern for the 18th-century Spanish, who swung between two imperatives: preserving their presidency and maintaining a fragile peace with Algiers.[211] After the death of Mohamed Ben-Osman, his khaznagy (vizier) Sidi Hassan was elected dey and negotiations with Count Floridablanca resumed and almost 300 years of war ended with the resulting Spanish-Algerian Peace Treaty of 1791. Mers-el-Kebir and Oran once again became Algerian, and Spain undertook to "freely and voluntarily" restore the two cities in exchange for the exclusive right to trade certain agricultural products in Oran and Mers-el-Kébir. On 12 February 1792 Spanish soldiers evacuated Oran, and Mohammed el Kebir entered the city. Algerians had finally freed their lands from foreign occupation after almost 300 years "holy war".[213][214]

Decline of Algiers (1800–1830)

Algerian Jewish merchants

Jewish man from Algeria

The Jews of Algiers became an economic power and eliminated many European merchant houses from the Mediterranean, which deeply worried the Marseillais defending their threatened monopoly.[d] French consuls resented the Jews, and urged their King to pass ordinances to prevent them from trading in French harbors. But the Jewish merchants dealt in prize goods from the corsairs as well as in more regular merchandise, and were essential to government because of their contacts and skill in aligning their affairs with the interests of the Algerian state.[215] They were at the origin of various Algerian disputes with Spain and especially with France.[215][216]

To avoid further difficulty, the French king established rules, port regulations, and tariffs to make good the losses of the French. These prevented Algerian merchants from trading in French ports and transporting their cargoes of wax, wheat and honey to the French market themselves.[215] The Marseillais wanted to prohibit Algerian Jews from remaining more than three days in port, and appealed to the dey to prohibit Jews from trading in Marseilles. Muslim merchants had a cemetery in Marseilles and wanted to build a mosque there, but were refused. Moreover, the raïs, especially the Christian converts to Islam, did not dare land on Christian soil, where they risked imprisonment and torture.[217]

Unable to own commercial vessels or to transport their goods themselves to Europe, the Algerians used foreign intermediaries and fell back again on the corso to compensate them.[217]

Crisis of the 19th century

In the early 19th century, Algiers was struck with political turmoil and economic stress.[218] Misery caused by failed wheat harvests resulted in public riots. Prominent Jewish grain merchant Naphtali Busnash was blamed for the shortages and killed. A pogrom followed, then assassination of the dey who had encouraged it, which began a 20-year period of coups.[218]

Constant war burdened the population with heavy taxes and fines that took no account of the hardship they caused. This burden primed the population to respond to calls for disobedience, which the deys always met with brute force.[219] In 1792 in Constantine popular administrator of the eastern Beylik Saleh Bey was killed, a looks to Algiers of a seasoned politician and military and administrative leader.[220] At the start of the 19th century, intrigues from the Moroccan court in Fez inspired the Zawiyas to stir up unrest and revolt.[221] Muhammad ibn Al-Ahrash, a marabout from Morocco and leader of the Darqawiyyah-Shadhili religious order, led the revolt in eastern Algeria with his Rahmaniyya allies.[222] The Darqawis in western Algeria joined the revolt and besieged Tlemcen, and the Tijanis also joined the revolt in the south. But the revolt was defeated by Bey Osman, and he himself was killed by Dey Hadj Ali.[223] Morocco definitively took possession of Oujda in 1808,[224] and Tunisia freed itself from Algeria after the wars of 1807 and 1813.[225]

Destructive earthquakes, epidemics and a drought in 1814 led to the death of thousands and a decline in trade.[226]

Barbary Wars

Several masted ships assembled in front of a backdrop of smoke and flame. Men in rowboats in foreground.
1816 Bombardment of Algiers, Thomas Luny. Sotheby's
Dey Omar Agha receiving the representative of Lord Exmouth after the bombardment of Algiers in 1816

Internal fiscal problems in the early 19th century led Algiers to again engaged in widespread piracy against American and European shipping, taking full advantage of the Napoleonic Wars.[227] Being the most notorious Barbary state,[228][229] Algiers declared war on the U.S which agreed to buy peace for $10 million including ransoms and annual tribute over 12 years.[227] Another treaty with Portugal brought $690,337 in ransom and $500,000 in tribute.[230] But Algiers was defeated in the Second Barbary War. Also, a new European order that arose from the French revolutionary wars and the Congress of Vienna no longer tolerated Algerian piracy, deeming it as "barbarous relic of a previous age".[231] This culminated in August 1816 when Lord Exmouth executed a naval bombardment of Algiers,[232] ending in a victory for the British and Dutch, a weakened Algerian navy, and liberation of 1200 slaves.[233]

Following this defeat, dey Omar Agha managed to restore the defenses of Algiers,[234] and some European nations already agreed to pay tribute again, but he was eventually killed.[235] To stabilize the state, his successor Ali Khodja suppressed insubordinate elements of the Odjak with the help of Koulouglis and Zwawa soldiers.[231][236] The last dey of Algiers Hussein Pasha sought to nullify the consequences of earlier Algerian defeats by restarting piracy again, and repelling a British attack on Algiers in 1824 led by Vice-Admiral Harry Burrard Neale.[237] This cemented a false belief that Algiers could still fight off a disunited Europe.[238]

French invasion

Landing at Sidi Fredj

During the

Napoleonic campaign in Egypt.[239]

The answers of French consul

invasion of Algeria on 14 June 1830. Algiers surrendered on 5 July, and Hussein Dey went into exile in Naples.[114] Charles X was overthrown a few weeks later by the July Revolution and replaced by his cousin, Louis Philippe I.[239]

Political status

Page of typeset book
"Algeria" page in the Civitates Orbis Terrarium of 1575

Às the center of Ottoman rule in northwest Africa after 1516, Algiers became the headquarters of probably the greatest janissary force in the empire outside Constantinople, and also the hub of Muslims corsairs, a bastion of the Ottoman Empire in its competition with the West for control over the western Mediterranean.[240]

The island of

Benedictine from Sicily who was held captive in Algiers in 1577-1580.[242]

1516: State of Algiers established

Aruj set out to build a powerful Muslim state in the central Maghreb at the expense of its principalities.[242] He sought the support of the religious authorities, in particular the popular maraboutic and Sufi orders. [243] He conveyed his vision to them the government structure he envisioned, the Odjak of Algiers.[35] It was to be a military republic like that of the island of Rhodes, occupied by the Christian Knights Hospitaller.[244]

This Odjak administrative structure and the religiously sanctioned power of Aruj were freely accepted by the military, with the scimitars of Turks and Christian renegades behind him. They made his authority absolute, and accepted without resistance by the population.[244]

Power was in the hands of the Odjak, and native Algerians and Kouloughlis were excluded from high government positions,[35] although they still held legal and police powers within Algiers as muftis, qadis, and mayors.[245]

Hayreddin's consolidation

Man wearing helmet seen in profile
Sultan Charardin of Algeria, Called Barbarossa, by Lorenzo de Musi (Italian, active c. 1535)

The new pasha, Hayreddin Barbarossa, inherited his brother's position unopposed. He in fact designed the strategy for the Algerian state's existence.[242]

He pledged allegiance to the Sublime Porte to obtain its support against the Spanish Empire and the rebellions fomented by his opponents, and had himself recognized as sovereign by the Sultan, with the title of beylerbey.[39] To manage state affairs and govern the country, he relied on the carefully chosen members of the dîwân council. [246] Its members eventually came to be not appointed, but elected, mostly from the corps of janissaries, as in Constantinople.[247] Even if they reflected the Ottoman ruling class, the members of the dîwân became "the Algerians" of the state.[248][249] Barbarossa had established the military basis of the Regency,[250] formalising corsair activities into a well-organized institution that recruited, financed and operated the infamous tai'fa of raïs. It became the model for other Barbary corsairs in Tunis, Tripoli and the Republic of Salé.[251]

Ottoman Viceroyalty of Algiers (1519–1659)

Corsair kings: Beylerbeylik period (1519–1587)

The foreign policy of Algiers in its first few decades aligned completely with that of the Ottoman Empire, since the country and its affairs were in the hands of the Ottoman beylerbey (governor-general). Mostly companions of Hayreddin Barbarossa, beylerbeys were appointed as viceroys by the Ottoman sultan from among the corsair captains of Algiers.[252] They often remained in power for several years, exercising their authority over Tunis and Tripoli, and leading Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean.[84] Algiers became the most successful port in the Maghreb and a very cosmopolitan city.[253][254] European powers portrayed it as the "scourge of Christendom" and a 16th-century "rogue state".[254]

Because of their experience in fleet command, some beylerbeys became Kapudan Pasha [57] Even though they acknowledged the suzerainty of the sultan, the beylerbeys were autonomous, however. De Haëdo called them "Kings of Algiers".[252]

The "timar" system was not applied in Algiers. Instead the beylerbeys sent tribute to Constantinople every year, after meeting the expenses of the state. In return, Constantinople provided a steady stream of janissaries.[4][255] The sultan gave the ruler of Algiers a free hand but expected Algerian ships to help enforce Ottoman foreign policy if need be.[256] Eventually the internal and external interests of Algiers and Constantinople diverged on the matter of privateering, over which the Porte had no control.[257]

Triennial mandate: Pashalik period (1587–1659)

The arrival of the new pasha, Viceroy of Algiers sent from by the great lord (Ottoman Sultan), by Jan Luyken (1684)

Fearful of the growing independence of the rulers of Algiers, the Ottoman Empire abolished the

privateering.[106][258]

Aversion to the Sublime Porte increased in Algiers. Khider Pasha [fr] and the Odjak of Algiers strongly opposed the Ottoman capitulation treaties,[261] and like the corsairs, the Odjak grew stronger, more autonomous, and more influencial.[4][255] In 1596 Khider Pasha led a revolt on Algiers in an effort to overthrow the Odjak. Although it spread to neighboring towns, it failed.[262][263]

The later pashas of Algiers were constantly torn between the demands of the corsairs and the Odjak, as both could refuse orders from the sultan or even send back appointed pashas.[257] So the pashas worked to multiply their wealth as quickly as possible before the end of their three-year term in office. As long as this was their main goal, governance became a secondary issue, and little by little actual rule was transferred to the janissary dîwân, and the pashas lost all influence and respect.[264]

Sovereign Military Republic of Algiers (1659–1830)

Janissary revolution: Agha regime in 1659

Man stepping forward about to pull out a scimitar
Helmeted man wearing a surcoat
Corsair captain of Algiers. (left), janissary of the Odjak of Algiers. (right)

Ibrahim Pasha pocketed some of the money the Ottoman sultan sent the corsairs to compensate them for their losses in the Cretan War. This ignited a massive revolt [120] and he was arrested and imprisoned.[265] Taking advantage of this incident, Khalil Agha, commander-in-chief of the janissaries of Algiers, seized power,[266][153] accusing the pashas sent by the Sublime Porte of corruption and hindering the Regency's affairs with European countries.[267] The janissaries effectively eliminated the authority of the pasha,[268] whose position became purely ceremonial. They assigned executive authority to Khalil Agha, provided that his rule not exceed two months. They put legislative power in the hands of the dîwân council. The sultan, forced to accept the new government, stipulated that the dîwân pay the salaries of the Turkish soldiers stationed there. Khalil Agha launched his rule by building the iconic Djamaa el Djedid mosque.[269] The era of the Aghas began[153] and the pashalik became a military republic.[270][271][272]

Military chiefs elective: Deylik period (1671–1830)

The government of the regency underwent another change in 1671. When a British squadron commanded by Sir Edward Spragge[273] destroyed seven ships at anchor in Algiers, the corsairs rebelled and the murder of Agha Ali (1664–71), the last of the four janissary chiefs who had ruled the country since 1659, all of whom had been assassinated.[63]

Ali Agha's death caught the leaders of the Regency unaware. The Odjak wanted to pursue the experiment of sovereign Aghas, but lacked candidates, so the janissaries and the corsairs resorted to an old expedient used by Ali Bitchin Raïs in 1644–45, entrusting both responsibility for the payroll and the rule of the Regency to an old Dutch renegade raïs named "Hadj Mohammed Trik".[274][275] They gave him the titles of Dey (maternal uncle) and Doulateli (head of state) and Hakem (military ruler).[276] After 1671, the deys became the main leaders of the country,[274][277] but their power was limited by the dîwân council.[248] This institutionalization of the relationship between holders of military and financial power and formal diplomatic recognition from European states,[8] made Algiers de-facto independent from the Ottoman Empire.[7]

Mohamed Ben Hassan Pasha-Dey giving audience to the King of France's envoy Mr Dusault in 1719

The pashas intrigued in the shadows, stirred up conflicts and fomented sedition to overthrow the unpopular deys and regain some of their lost authority.[266] From 1710 on, the deys assumed the title of Pasha, at the initiative of Dey Baba Ali Chaouch (1710–1718) and no longer accepted a representative of the sultan at their side.[8] They also imposed their authority on the janissaries and the raïs.[63] The latter did not approve of treaty provisions which restricted privateering, their main source of income, as they remained attached to the external prestige of the Regency.[278] But European reactions, new treaties guaranteeing the safety of navigation and a slowdown in shipbuilding considerably reduced their activity. The raïs had risen up and killed Dey Mohamed Ben Hassan.[279] The new dey, Ali Abdi (1724–1732), quickly restored order and severely punished the conspirators.[280]

Ali Abdi Pasha managed to stabilize the regency and fight off corruption. The dîwân was gradually weakened in favor of the dey's cabinet. While relations with Constantinople became even more slender and tenuous, they were not broken.[281]

Administration

Banner of the dey of Algiers, Victor Hugo museum, Paris
Djenina Palace, seat of power of the regency of Algiers

The administrative apparatus of Ottoman Algeria organized itself through a mixture of borrowed Ottoman systems, maintained by regular recruitment of military elements from Ottoman lands in exchange for sending tribute to the Porte, and local traditions inherited from the Almohad Caliphate, which were adopted by the courts of the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Hafsids.[282]

The corsairs founded the Regency of Algiers under the Ottoman banner,[283] carrying out a holy war against the Christians through the use of gunpowder and the resources of the Ottoman Empire, and exploiting their political and military superiority to defeat weak local emirates and impose a foreign elite on a divided Maghrebi society.[284] Thus, politics in Algiers depended on the Ottoman military elite that kept its autonomy without integrating in a tribal and self-ruled indigenous society in the countryside, which still gave alliegence and paid taxes to a military authority that respected their marabouts and defended them against Christian powers.[e][285] A distinction was made between:[286]

  • State or "Khassa" composed of Ottoman officials, Arab tribal lowlanders known as "makhzen", and Berber highlanders known as "zouaves".
  • Society or "Ra'iya" comprised diverse national religious, tribal and urban communities.

Algerian stratocratic government

The Regency was described by some contemporary observers as a "republic".

political parties. Instead, politics was based on the principle of consensus (ijma), legitimized by Islam and by jihad.[288]

Dey of Algiers

Turbanned man sitting with a knife in his belt holding a peacock-feather fan
Hussein Pasha, last dey of Algiers (1818–1830)

The dey was in charge of the enforcement of civil and military laws, ensuring internal security, generating necessary revenues, organizing and providing regular pay for the troops and assuring correspondences with the tribes.[289] In principle, any member of the janissary Odjak or the corsair captains could aspire to become dey of Algiers through a system of "democracy by seniority."[287] Elections were accomplished in absolute equality and unanimous vote among the armed forces.[290] Ottoman Algerian dignitary Hamdan Khodja indicates:[291]

Among the members of the government two of them are called, one "wakil-el-kharge", and the other "khaznagy". It is from these dignitaries that the dey is chosen; sovereignty in Algiers is not hereditary: personal merit is not transmitted to children. In a way we could say that they adopted the principles of a republic, of which the dey is only the president.

The election was required for confirmation from the Ottoman sultan who inevitably sent a firman of investiture, a red kaftan of honor, a saber of state and the rank of Pasha of three Horsetails in the Ottoman army.[292] However, the dey was elected for life and could only be replaced on his death. Overthrowing the current leader was thus the only path to power, so violence and instability flourished. This volatility led many early 18th-century European observers to point to Algiers as an example of the inherent dangers of democracy.[288]

Cabinet

Palace of Mustafa Khodjet al-Khil (secretary of horses)
Admiralty of Algiers in 1880, seat of Captain Raïs, harbourmaster and Wakil al-kharaj (minister of the navy)

The dey appointed and relied on five ministers to govern Algiers (except the Agha):[63]

  • Khaznaji [fr]: Prime minister in charge of finances and the public treasury. Often translated as vizier of the dey, or "principal secretary of state".
  • Agha: Commander-in-chief of the Odjak and minister of internal affairs, he was also responsible for governing the Dar Es-Soltane [fr] region of Algiers.
  • Wakil al-Kharaj [fr] : Minister of the navy and foreign affairs, he was the Kapudan rais or head of the tai'fa of rais. He was also responsible for matters relating to weapons, ammunition and fortifications.
  • Khodjet al-khil [fr]: Responsible for relations with tribes, fiscal responsibilities and tax collections, he usually headed expeditions to the tribal interior. He also had the ceremonial role of "secretary of horses" and was assisted by a Khaznadar.[293]
  • Bait al-Maldji: Responsible for the state domain (makhzen) and for rights devolved to the treasury such as vacant inheritances, registrations and confiscations.[293]

Based on their honesty and learning, the dey also nominated muftis (Islamic jurists) as the highest echelon of Algerian justice. [294]

Diwan council

Three levels of galleries surround a courtyard
Courtyard of the Dîwân of Algiers, which later became the Palace of the Deys, also known by the French as "Pavilion of the Fan"
Janissary headquarters, Henri Klein (1910)

The Dîwân of Algiers was established in the 16th century by Hayreddin Barbarossa and seated first in the Jenina Palace [fr] then at the kasbah citadel. This assembly, initially led by a janissary Agha, evolved from a means to administer the Odjak of Algiers into a primary institution of the country's administration.[295] Beginning around 1628, the Diwan expanded into two subdivisions:

  • The private (janissary) Dîwân (dîwân khass): Any recruit could rise through the ranks, one every three years. Over time, he would serve among 60 janissary bulukbasis (senior officers) with a vote on all high policy.[287] The commander-in-chief or "Agha of Two Moons" was elected for a term of two months as president of the dîwân. He also governed the Regency during the Agha period (1659–1671) with the title of Hakem.[120]
  • The public, or Grand Dìwân (diwan âm), composed of 800 to 1500
    Hanafi scholars and preachers, the raïs, and native notables.[296]: At the beginning of their mandate, the deys consulted the dîwân on all important questions and decrees. This council in principle met weekly, depending on the dey. By the 19th century, he could ignore the dîwân whenever he felt powerful enough to govern alone.[297][295]

Territorial management

Ottoman Algeria

The Regency was composed of various beyliks (provinces) under the authority of beys (vassals):[298]

These beyliks were institutionally divergent and enjoyed significant autonomy.[299]

Ottoman administration of Algeria relied on Arab makhzen tribes.[268] Under the beylik system, the beys divided their beyliks into chiefdoms. Each province was divided into outan, or counties, governed by caïds (commanders) under the authority of the bey to maintain order and collect taxes.[300] Thus the beys ran an administrative system and managed their beyliks with the help of commanders and governors among the Makhzen tribes. In return, these tribes enjoyed special privileges, including exemptions from taxes.[301]

The bey of Constantine relied on the strength of the local tribes, and at the forefront of those tribes were the Beni Abbas in Medjana and the Arab tribes in Hodna and the M'zab region. The chiefs of these tribes were called "Sheikh of the Arabs".[300] This system allowed Algiers to expand its authority over northern Algeria for three centuries.[302]

Economy

Mandatory royalties and gifts

Algiers imposed royalties on its European trading partners in exchange for

customs duties.[303][117] These royalties differed according to the relationship between those countries and Algiers, and the conditions prevailing in that period had an impact on determining their amounts, shown in the following table:[303]

Royalties imposed by the Regency of Algiers in late 18th century - early 19th century
Country Year Value
Spanish Empire 1785 –1807 After signing the armistice of 1785 and withdrawing from Oran, it was obliged to pay 18,000 francs. It contributed 48,000 dollars in 1807.
Grand Duchy of Tuscany 1823 Before 1823, it was forced to pay 25,000 doubles (Tuscan lira) or 250,000 francs.
Kingdom of Portugal 1822 It was required to pay the 20,000 francs.
Kingdom of Sardinia 1746 - 1822 Following the treaty of 1746, it was forced to pay 216,000 francs by 1822.
Kingdom of France 1790 - 1816 Before the year 1790, it paid 37,000 pounds. After 1790, it pledged to pay 27,000 piasters, or 108,000 francs, and in 1816, it committed to pay 200,000 francs.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 1807 It pledged to pay 100,000 piasters, or 267,500 francs, in exchange for some privileges.
Kingdom of the Netherlands 1807 - 1826 After the treaty of 1826, it committed to paying 10,000 Algerian sequins, and in 1807, it paid the 40,000 piasters, or 160,000 francs.
Austrian Empire 1807 In the year 1807 paid an estimated 200,000 francs.
The United States of America 1795 - 1822 In 1795 paid 1,000,000 dollars, of which 21,600 dollars in equipment, in exchange for special privileges.
Kingdom of Naples 1816 - 1822 Paid a royalty estimated at 24,000 francs. In 1822, a royalty of 12,000 francs was paid every two years.
Kingdom of Norway 1822 Paid a royalty of 12,000 francs every two years.
Kingdom of Denmark 1822 Paid a royalty of 180,000 francs every two years.
Kingdom of Sweden 1822 Paid a royalty of 120,000 francs every two years.
Republic of Venice 1747 - 1763 From 1747, it paid a royalty of 2,200 Gold coins annually. In 1763, the royalties became an estimated 50,000 riyals (Venetian lira).

Royalties were also imposed on Bremen, Hanover, and Prussia, in addition to the Papal States on some occasions.[303]

Taxation

Sulayman I
, 1520/21, minted in Algiers.

Some of the taxes levied by the regency fell under Islamic law, including the cushr (tithe) on agricultural products, but some had elements of extortion.[304] Periodic tithes could only be collected from crops grown on private farmland near the towns. Instead, nomadic tribes in the mountains paid a fixed tax, called garama (compensation), based on a rough estimate of their wealth. In addition, rural populations also paid a tax known as lazma (obligation) or ma'una (support), that paid for Muslim armies to defend the country from Christians. City dwellers had other taxes, including market taxes and dues to artisan guilds.[305] Beys also collected gifts (dannush), every six months for the deys and their chief ministers. Every bey had to personally bring dannush every three years. In other years, his khalifa (deputy) could take it to Algiers.[306]

The arrival of a bey or khalifa in Algiers with dannush was a notable event governed by a protocol setting out how to receive him and when his gifts were to be given to the dey, his ministers, officials and the poor. The honors that the bey received depended on the value of the gifts he brought.

woollen tilimsan garments, Fez silk garments, and twenty quintals each of wax, honey, butter, and walnuts . Dannush from the Eastern Province was larger and included Tunisian products such as perfumes and clothing.[304]

Agriculture

Man on horseback accompanied by goats
Kabyle Shepherd, by Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)

Agricultural production benefited the regency even more than privateering at some point.[57] Fallowing and crop rotation were widely practiced. The most important crops, wheat, cotton, rice, tobacco, watermelon and corn and other vegetables, were the most commonly grown products.[307] Cereals and livestock products especially constituted much of the export trade after providing for local consumption of oil, grain, wool, wax and leather.[308]

State and urban notables owned very fertile lands near the main towns, known as fahs, cultivated by tenant farmers who received a fifth of the harvest under the khammas sharecropping system for common land.

olive trees.[309]

Feudal lords held vast areas of Algeria's best land, where monoculture of wheat and barley predominated. This feudal regime did not always distribute the usufruct equitably and the tribe sometimes de facto excluded members from their land.[309]

Algeria's agricultural wealth came from the quality of the cultivated land, but also from agricultural techniques that used all the means of the time (ploughs dragged by oxen, donkeys, mules, or camels) and irrigation and ingenious water systems supplying small collective dams. Mouloud Gaid [fr] wrote: "Tlemcen, Mostaganem, Miliana, Médéa, Mila, Constantine, M'sila, Aïn El-Hamma, etc., were always sought after for their green sites, their orchards and their succulent fruits."[310]

The majority of the western population south of the Tell Atlas and the people of the Sahara were pastoralists, nomads and semi-nomads who lived from date cultivation and Livestock, sheep, goat and camel breeding. Their products (butter, wool, skins, camel hair) were traded north.[311]

Manufacturing and craftsmanship

Two flintlock pistols inlaid with salmon-colored coral
Pistols presented by the dey of Algiers as a gift to the Prince Regent (future George IV of Great Britain) in 1811 and 1819, evidence of the high esteem in which these coral-decorated firearms were held

foundries produced cannons of all sizes for the warships of the Algerian navy and for use as fort batteries and field artillery.[309]

Craftsmanship was rich and widespread across the country. Cities were centers of great craft and commercial activity.

Mila and Constantine. The most common crafts were weaving, woodturning, dyeing, rope-making and tools.[312] In Algiers, a very large number of trades were practiced; the city was home to foundries, shipyards, workshops, shops, and stalls. Tlemcen had more than 500 looms. Artisans were prevalent even in small towns with close ties to rural areas.[313]

Trade

Two ships with sails and some smaller boats with oars in a harbor, with a walled city and a citadel behind them and a steep hill in the background
Dutch shipping off the harbour and city of Algiers. oil on canvas, Reinier Nooms (1623/1624–1664)

Internal trade was extremely important due to the makhzen system. Products such as wool that city-dwellers needed came in from the tribal interior and were traded between cities.[314] Foreign trade mainly shipped by sea but also included overland exports to neighbouring Tunisia and Morocco.[308] Overland trade used animals to transport goods, mainly on their backs, but also used carts. The roads were suitable for vehicles, and the many posts of the Odjak and the makhzen tribes provided security. In addition, caravanserais, locally known as fonduk, gave travelers a place to rest.[314]

Control over the Sahara was often loose, but Algiers' economic ties to it were very important,[315] and Algiers and other Algerian cities were among the main destinations of the trans-Saharan slave trade.[316]

Society

Tribal organizations were only one affiliation or group that individuals might have felt they belonged to. Many Algerian texts written since the 17th century speak of the watan al jazâ'ir (country of Algeria), and use the term "our homeland". Such wordings descriptions suggest an incarnation of the state governance intermediate between tribal anarchy and the modern nation-state.[317]

Urban population

Men gather standing, squatting or sitting cross-legged in front of an open door. Several are smoking long pipes.
Coffeehouse of Sidi Mohamed Sherif, named after the mosque in the heart of the Kasbah, one of the oldest neighbourhoods of Algiers. Olivier Bro de Comeres (1812-1874).
Miniature depicts children playing in the foreground as men gather to talk in a crowded market.
Algerine qasba at night in the month of Ramadan. Mohammed Racim (1896-1975) Arabic inscription says: "Memory of old islamic Algeria, Night of the middle of the month of Ramadan" (Sidi Mohammed El-Sharif neighbourhood)

Around 10,000 Turks made up the ruling class of Algerian society, including senior officials, politicians, administrators and soldiers.[318] There were no harems in Algiers since its elected rulers did not require heirs and also were often challenged.[319] However a class of Kouloughlis [320] emerged, the offspring of Turkish soldiers and Algerian women, as well as indigenous Algerians, Blacks, urban immigrants from Andalusia and a Jewish minority.[321] Muslims, mostly of the Maliki school, represented 99% of the population.[308]

The

coffeehouses",[308] where friends could chat over mint tea. These well-appointed and decorated places of rest and idleness overlooked the sea in the lower town, or were strategically located at certain crossroads. The most famous coffeehouses in the qasba were Café Tlemçani, Café El Fouara, Café Gourari and Café Larriche.[322]

The city closed its gates at nightfall and observed Islamic holidays. Friday was devoted to religious services. Public business was carried out in both Arabic and Osmanli.[323]

Social structures

In precolonial Maghreb, the tribe was a primary political structure and could itself be the central power or the reigning dynasty in the makhzen system.

Others (siba) were independent or had their own territory. This system persisted under the Regency. A complex link developed between tribes and the central state, with tribes adapting to central government pressure.[324][325]

Central authority was sometimes necessary for the consolidation of the tribes. These relations even seemed complementary.[325] Makhzen tribes derived their legitimacy from their relationship to the central power. Without it, they were reduced to relying on their own strength. The rayas (tax payers) and siba tribes opposed taxes, which reduced their surplus production, more than they opposed the central authority itself, and depended on market access organized by the central authorities and the makhzen tribes.[326] Even insubordinate tribes often organized themselves as another authority. The markets outside the territories dependent on central powers were managed by the marabouts who, in the absence of central authority, very often acted as guarantors of tribal order.[324]

Nineteenth-century ethnologist Émile Masqueray compared the "Berber city of the Maghreb", to the city-state of Antiquity. Cities and villages articulated their own organizations within the tribal systems and confederations they composed.[327] The cities, made up of families, left room for individuality. Although they depended on tribal society, the cities distanced people from tribal ways. However, the tribe did not disappear, but adapted to the village framework, and its importance varied from region to region. It remained relatively important in the Aurès, for example.[324]

Tribal aristocracy

Cloaked and turbaned man on a spirited charger, accompanied by an armed escort
Ali Ben-Hamet, Caliph de Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort, (oil on canvas), Théodore Chassériau (1845). Palace of Versailles

The political authority of the tribes often depended on either their military strength or their religious lineage.[324] These two aristocracies, the religious brotherhoods who dominated the west, and the djouad strongman families of the east, often opposed one another. [328] In all Algerian society had three forms of aristocracy:[329]

Territory of the Awled Sidi Cheikh in 1842

They were a “principality”, a polity based on princedom, but were not themselves a central power, but vassals of Algiers. Nor were they a dynasty but a political confederation, headed by a riyasa (chiefdom) of the Awlad Sidi Cheikh maraboutic brotherhoods.[324] The marabouts also shared in the booty of the corsairs.[332]

Culture

The large number of schools dominated by an otherworldly religious ethos indicates that intellectual life in Algiers lacked not innovation and reform, but institutions or organization.[333] The dominant political culture hastened the decline of intellectuals, not just traditionalism, [334]

The military and naval Ottoman elites' strong belief that northern Christendom needed to be prevented from military expansion into the Maghreb hampered the development of learning, and pushed intellectual culture to the margins,[333] since they were more interested in building forts, navies, and castles.[335]

Education

Baba Ali Pasha

Education in Algeria mainly took place in small primary schools focused on teaching basic reading, writing and religion, especially in rural areas. Local imams, zawiyas, marabouts, and elders provided most of the teaching.[336] These madrasas relied on local authorities.[334]

Secondary and tertiary education in the madrasas of the larger cities, was often maintained through waqf and central government funding. Dey Baba Ali Chaouch for example commissioned a school. Algiers alone had several madrasas, zawiyas, and midrashims (Jewish schools), and also very famous bookstores (warraqates).

Initially, western Algeria, especially Tlemcen, was the main center of learning, but schools and universities there declined due to neglect. Abu Hammu II's madrasa especially fell into complete ruin. This decline ended only when Mohammed el Kebir, bey of Oran, significantly invested in renovating and rebuilding several educational facilities in the region.[337]

Architecture

Architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrated the convergence of multiple influences as well as innovations by local architects.

Hanafi mosques in the city.[341][342] By the end of the 18th century, the city had over 120 mosques, including over a dozen congregational mosques.[343]

A radical change occurred in artistic taste, with the advent of abundant use of star and polygonal plates of

architectural ceramic
tile
[344] in a geometric style known as zellij.

Square decorative tiles were diverse and widespread in Algiers and Constantine, with some simpler examples in

balusters
.

They were not used on external facades, but the tiles used to decorate the buildings of Ottoman Algeria were distinguished by their diversity of production, decoration, origin and artistic value.[346]

Algiers was protected by a wall about 3.1 kilometres (1.9 mi) long with five gates.[347] Seafront fortifications were supplemented by forts the outside the city, including the "star fort", built above the qasba in 1568, defending the landward approaches to the city, the 'twenty-four hour fort', and the Eulj Ali burj, covering the Bab al-Oued beach, built in 1569. Facing south was the "Emperor fort" or Sultan Kalassi, built between 1545 and 1580.[348] A citadel, the qasba, occupied the highest point of the city. The lower town near the harbor was the center of Regency administration and contained the most important markets, mosques, palaces, janissary barracks and government buildings like the mint.[347] The palace of the ruler of Algiers, the Djenina ('Little Garden'), was at the center of a larger complex known as the Dar al-Sultan until 1817, when Dey Ali Khodja moved to the Palace of the Dey in the qasba.[347] The only remaining example of architecture from the Dar al-Sultan complex today, the Dar 'Aziza Bint al-Bey, is believed to have been built in the 16th century.[349]

Inside the Palace of Ahmed Bey, last governor of the eastern beylik
Square tiles inside the palais des raïs
Tiles in the interior of Hassan III Pasha Khaznaji Palace (1791)
Djamaa el Djedid and Djamaa el Kebir mosques in Algiers, by Niels Simonsen (1843)]]
Galleries of the Hassan Pacha Palace

Arts

Crafts

Kaftan sent as part of a large gift presented by Ali Pasha of Algiers to the Swedish king in 1731 in connection with the peace treaty between Sweden and Algiers

Three centuries of Ottoman influence in Algeria left many cultural elements of Turkish origin or influence, wrote Lucien Golvin.[350]

Luce Ben Aben School of Arab Embroidery, Algiers
Coppersmith, Casbah Algiers
Mharma

Music

Constant arrivals from Anatolia and Al-Andalus brought a mix of Ottoman military music with Sufi Bektashi origins, called "mehter", played by janissary bands in a strongly accented style.[353] Andalusian music brought by moriscos developed three styles; Tlemcenian gharnati, Constantine's ma'luf and sana' in Algiers.[354] It was widespread in coffeehouses and often played by orchestras of tar, oud and rebab.[353]

Contemporary Algerian

Knights of Malta in his song "Corsani Ghanem" (Our ship captured a prize) based on 16th century Algerian Arabic poetry by Imad Al-Din Doukkali.[355]

Andalusian orchestra in Tlemcen. Bachir Yellès.
El Fouara coffeehouse, Algiers. Mohamed Temmam.
Mehter. Mehterhâne, from the Surname-ı Vehbi [fr] (fol. 172a(L)-171b(R)) (1720) Abdulcelil Levni. Topkapı Palace, Istanbul

Legacy

View of the city of Algiers in 1828
View of the city of Algiers in 1828

Algiers is remembered as "the center of pirate activity" and political anarchy, a fearsome enemy that captivated European imaginations,[356] enslaving Christians and "subjecting to the humiliation of an annual tribute three quarters of Europe and the United States of America".[357] American historian Jean Baptist Wolf argues that the local population resented an army of occupation that constituted a republic of "cutthroats and theives", and the French "civilizing mission", although carried out by brutal means, did offer much to the Algerian people.[358] However, historians John Douglas Ruedy and William Spencer write that the prime achievement of the Ottomans in North Africa was the creation of an Algerian political entity possessing all the classical attributes of statehood with a high standard of living.[359][g] Algerian historian Yahia Boaziz adds that the Ottomans repelled European attacks and convinced the people of the central Maghreb to abide by the system of a centralised state.[360] Historian Mahfoud Kaddache considered the Ottoman period as "catalytic to the modern geopolitical and national development of Algeria."[361] Yet, Ruedy says, the end of tribal rivalries and the emergence of a truly national entity occurred only after long years of brutal French conquest and colonial implantation and unrelenting Algerian resistance, culminating in the Algerian war of independence in 1954.[359]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In the historiography relating to the regency of Algiers, it has been named "Kingdom of Algiers",[362] "Republic of Algiers",[363] "State of Algiers",[364] "State of El-Djazair",[365] "Ottoman Regency of Algiers",[364] and "Ottoman Algeria",[366] The current divisions of the Maghreb go back to the three regencies of the sixteenth century: Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Algiers became the capital of its state and this term in the international acts applied to both the city and the country which it ordered: الجزائر (El-Djazâ'ir). However a distinction was made in the spoken language between on the one hand El-Djazâ'ir, the space which was neither the Extreme Maghreb, nor the regency of Tunis, and on the other hand, the city commonly designated by the contraction دزاير (Dzayer) or in a more classic register الجزائر العاصمة (El-Djazâ'ir El 'âçima, Algiers the Capital).[367] The regency, which lasted over three centuries, shaped what Arab geographers designate as جزيرة المغرب (Djazirat El Maghrib). This period saw the installation of a political and administrative organization which participated in the establishment of the Algerian: وطن الجزائر (watan el djazâïr, country of Algiers) and the definition of its borders with its neighboring entities on the east and west.[368] In European languages, El Djazâïr became Alger, Argel, Algiers, Algeria, etc. In English, a progressive distinction was made between Algiers, the city, and Algeria, the country. Whereas in French, Algiers designated both the city and the country, under the forms of "Kingdom of Algiers" or "Republic of Algiers". "Algerians" as a demonym is attested in writing in French as early as 1613 and its use has been constant since that date. Meanwhile in the English lexicology of the time, Algerian is "Algerine", which referred to the political entity that later became Algeria.[369]
  2. ^ Algerian historian Mahfoud Kaddache [fr] wrote that "Algeria was first a regency, a kingdom-province of the Ottoman Empire and then a state with great autonomy, independent even, sometimes called a kingdom or military republic by historians, but which still recognized the spiritual authority of the caliph of Istanbul".(Kaddache (1998) p. 233)
  3. ^ William Spencer notes: "For three centuries, Algerine foreign relations were conducted in such a manner as to preserve and advance the state's interests in total indifference to the actions of its adversaries, and to enhance Ottoman interests in the process. Algerine foreign policy was flexible, imaginative, and subtle; it blended an absolute conviction of naval superiority and belief in the permanence of the state as a vital cog in the political community of Islam, with a profound understanding of the fears, ambitions, and rivalries of Christian Europe." (Spencer (1976) pp. xi)
  4. ^ The Chamber of Commerce of Marseilles complained in a memoir in 1783: "Everything announces that this trade will one day imperceptibly be of some consideration, because the country has by itself a capital fund which has given the awakening to the peoples who live there, and that nothing is so common today, to see Algerians and Jews domiciled in Algiers coming to Marseilles to bring us the products of this kingdom." (Kaddache (2003) p. 538)
  5. ^ Ottoman Algerian dignitary Hamdan Khodja recalls: "The old officials who had completed their work were always repeating to their young successors: “We are foreigners. We did not obtain the submission of this people and the possession of this land by force and sword; Rather, thanks to kindness and leniency, we have become leaders !!! We were not statesmen in our country, and we did not obtain our titles and positions except on this land. Therefore, this country is our homeland, and our duty and interests require us to exert ourselves in contributing to the success and prosperity of this people. Just like we do it for ourselves.” (Khoja (2016) pp. 106-107)
  6. ^ American consul in Algiers William Shaler would describe the Algerian regency's government as following: "The merits of this government have been proved by its continuance, with few variations in it forms of administration, for three centuries. It is in fact a military republic with a chief elective for life, and upon a small scale resembling that of the Roman Empire after the death of Commodus. This government ostensibly consists of a sovereign chief, who is termed the Dey of Algiers, and a Divan, or great Council, indefinite in point of number, which is composed of the ancient military who are or have been commanders of corps. The divan elects the Deys, and deliberates upon such affairs as he chooses to lay before them." (Shaler (1826) p. 16)
  7. ^ William Spencer writes: "Algiers' status in the Mediterranean world was merited by its contributions as well as the exploits of the corsairs. Through the medium of Regency government, Ottoman institutions brought stability to North Africa. The flow of Anatolian recruits and the attachment to the Porte introduced many elements of the eclectic Ottoman civilization into the western Mediterranean. Corsair campaigns produced a fusion of Ottoman with native Maghribi and European styles, social patterns, architecture, crafts, and the like. A regular system of revenue collection, an efficient subsistence agriculture, and a well-established legitimate commerce along with corsair profits brought to the Regency a high standard of living. Its lands, while they never corresponded to the total territory conquered by France and incorporated into French Algeria, were homogeneous, well managed, and formed of an effective and collaborating social mixture the exact opposite of the situation which prevailed during the one hundred and thirty years of French control." (Spencer (1976) pp. xi-xii)

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Bibliography

Further reading

36°47′6″N 3°3′45″E / 36.78500°N 3.06250°E / 36.78500; 3.06250