Ottoman Caliphate
Ottoman Caliphate خلافت مقامى Hilâfet makamı | |||||||
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1517–1924 | |||||||
Caliph | | ||||||
• 1517–1520 | Selim I (first) | ||||||
• 1922–1924 | Abdulmejid II (last) | ||||||
Established | |||||||
• Declaration of jihad by the Ottoman Empire | 1914 | ||||||
1924 | |||||||
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Caliphate خِلافة |
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Islam portal |
The
The demise of the Ottoman Caliphate took place because of a slow erosion of power in relation to Western Europe, and because of the end of the Ottoman state as a consequence of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the League of Nations mandate. Abdulmejid II, the last Ottoman caliph, held his caliphal position for a couple of years after the partitioning, but with Mustafa Kemal Pasha's secular reforms and the subsequent exile of the imperial Osmanoğlu family from Turkey in 1924, the caliphal position was abolished. Mustafa Kemal Pasha offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid II.[1]
With the establishments of
History
Selim I to Abdulaziz (1517–1876)
In 1517, the Ottoman sultan
Strengthened by the Peace of Westphalia and the Industrial Revolution, European powers regrouped and challenged Ottoman dominance. Owing largely to poor leadership, archaic political norms, and an inability to keep pace with technological progress in Europe, the Ottoman Empire could not respond effectively to Europe's resurgence and gradually lost its position as a pre-eminent great power.
The first political (rather than religious) usage of the title caliph, however, would not occur until 1774, when the Ottomans needed to counter the Russians, who announced that they needed to protect Orthodox Christians under the Ottoman Empire, by making a similar claim about the Muslims living in Russia.[7][8] The British would tactfully affirm the Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in British India to comply with the British government.[9]
In the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire initiated a period of modernization known as the
The British government supported the view that the Ottomans were Caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India and the Ottoman sultans in return helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India, which extolled them to support British rule; these came from sultan Selim III and sultan Abdulmejid I.[12]
Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909)
Sultan
In 1899, the Ottomans would grant a request from the United States government and leverage their religious authority as caliphs to order that the Tausug Sultanate (located in what is now southern Philippines and northeastern Malaysia) stop the defence of the sultanate and surrender to American invasion; Sultan Jamalul-Kiram II of the Tausug Sultanate would heed the caliph sultan Abdul-Hamid II's order, and surrender.[13][14]
The coup by the three Pashas in 1909 marked the end of his reign. Western-inclined Turkish military officers opposed to Abdul-Hamid's rule had steadily organized in the form of secret societies within and outside
Counter-coup and 31 March Incident
A counter-coup launched by soldiers loyal to the sultan threatened the new government but ultimately failed. After nine months into the new parliamentary term, discontent and reaction found expression in a counter-revolutionary
Abdul-Hamid was deposed on 13 April 1909. He was replaced by his brother Rashid Effendi, who was proclaimed sultan Mehmed V on 27 April.
Mehmed V (1909–1918)
With Libya
In 1911
Internally, the Ottomans continued to be troubled by political instability. Nationalist uprisings that had plagued the Empire sporadically for the past fifty years intensified. The masses were growing frustrated with chronic misgovernance and the Ottomans' poor showing in military conflicts. In response, the CUP led a second coup d'état in 1913 and seized absolute control of the government. For the next five years, the Empire was a one-party state ruled by the CUP under the leadership of
World War I
As
Call for Jihad
Though the Young Turks had compelled the sultan in his capacity as the Caliph to declare a jihad urging all Muslims to resist Allied encroachment on their lands, the effort was largely unsuccessful. The Young Turk government resigned en masse and Enver, Talat, and Cemal fled Turkey aboard a German warship. sultan Mehmed VI, who was proclaimed sultan after his brother Mehmed V died of a heart attack in July, agreed to an armistice. The Armistice of Mudros formalizing Ottoman surrender was signed aboard HMS Agamemnon on 30 October 1918. Allied troops arrived in Constantinople and occupied the sultan's palace shortly thereafter.[16]
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
By the end of the war, the Ottomans had lost virtually their entire Empire. Hoping to keep his throne and preserve the Ottoman dynasty in some form or another, the sultan agreed to cooperate with the Allies. He dissolved parliament and allowed an Allied military administration to replace the government vacated by the Young Turks.
Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat movement (1919–22) was a political campaign launched in
Leaders participating in the movement included
of the Ottoman Caliphate, while others promoted Muslim interests and to bring the Muslim in national struggle.Generally described as a protest against the sanctions placed on the
Abolition
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2021) |
The Turkish national movement, as the details explained in
Initially, the National Assembly seemed willing to allow a place for the Caliphate in the new regime, agreeing to the appointment of Mehmed's cousin Abdülmecid as caliph upon Mehmed's departure (November 1922). But the position had been stripped of any authority, and Abdülmecid's purely ceremonial reign would be short lived. Mustafa Kemal had been a vocal critic of the Ottoman House and its Islamic orientation. When Abdülmecid was declared caliph, Kemal refused to allow the traditional Ottoman ceremony to take place, bluntly declaring:
The Caliph has no power or position except as a nominal figurehead.
In response to Abdülmecid's petition for an increase in his pay, Kemal wrote:
Your office, the Caliphate, is nothing more than a historic relic. It has no justification for existence. It is a piece of impertinence that you should dare write to any of my secretaries!
Still, for all the power he had already wielded in Turkey, Kemal did not dare to abolish the Caliphate outright, as it still commanded a considerable degree of support from the common people.
Then in 1924, two Indian brothers, Maulana
See also
- Islam in the Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman claim to Roman succession
- Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire
References
- ^ a b Özoğlu 2011, p. 5; Özoğlu quotes 867.00/1801: Mark Lambert Bristol on 19 August 1924.
- ISBN 9780520070608.
- ISBN 9780415341653.
- ISBN 9781136579172.
- ISBN 9781438110257.
- ^ Drews, Robert (August 2011). "Chapter Thirty – The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" (PDF). Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization. Vanderbilt University.
- ^ Barthold
- ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11371-8.
- ISBN 0-521-57456-0.
- ISBN 978-0-521-54782-6.
- ISBN 90-04-11371-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-513618-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7391-0356-2.
- OCLC 455106992.
- ^ International Law Studies
- ISBN 978-0-415-20112-4. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
Khilafat movement which was primarily designed to prevent the allied dismemberment of Turkey after World War One.
- ISBN 978-93-241-9210-3.
- ISBN 978-81-317-2042-4.
- ^ "Muhammad Ali Jauhar and the Mutiny Trial". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ISBN 9693509919.
- ^ Andrews, C.F (1922). Hakim Ajmal Khan.
- ^ "Khilafat movement | Indian Muslim movement | Britannica.com". Archived from the original on 8 December 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ Carl Olson (2007). The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction. Rutgers University Press. p. 29.
- ^ Inamdar, N.R. (1983). Political Thought and Leadership of Lokmanya Tilak. Concept. p. 259. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (7 December 2013). "Sardar and the Swayamsevaks". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-253-05832-4.
- ISBN 978-81-250-2596-2.
- ^ Ahmad Hasan Dani (1979). World Scholars on Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Volume 1. Quaid-i-Azam University. p. 85.
the Khilafat agitation ended in 1922
- ^ Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (1982).
- ^ Burton Stein (2010). A History of India. John Wiley & Sons. p. 300.
- ISBN 978-0-85772-233-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-956152-0.
- ^ "Khilafat movement | Causes, Date, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 22 December 2023.
- ISBN 9780465008506.
- ISBN 9780313379567.
Bibliography
- Deringil, Selim. "Legitimacy Structures in the Ottoman State: The Reign of Abdulhamid II (1876-1909), International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3 (August 1991).
- Haddad, Mahmoud. "Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rashid Rida's Ideas on the Caliphate", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 117, No. 2 (April 1997).
- Kedourie, Elie. "The End of the Ottoman Empire", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 4 (October 1968).
- Lewis, Bernard. "The Ottoman Empire and Its Aftermath", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 15, No. 1 (January 1980).
- Hussain, Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith Matters (October 2011)
External links
- Ottoman Caliphate (archived 3 November 2012)