Ottoman Empire

In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the

By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately 877,888 sq mi (2,273,720 km²), extending over three continents.^[65]: 545

In addition, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the

During the 1600s, the worldwide conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since both powers were at similar population, technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, despite the difference in the size of their respective territories, by the likes of the contemporary Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French political philosopher Jean Bodin.^[72]

Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)

Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)

Further information:

Ottoman Decline Thesis

In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.[75] These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.^{[76]: 413–414} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.^{[64][77]: 10} Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.^[64]

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The

The Ottomans decided to conquer Venetian Cyprus and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.^[82]: 67 On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The Siege of Famagusta claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.^[83]: 328 Meanwhile, the Holy League consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.^[84]: 24 It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,^[85] blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 siege of Malta had recently set about eroding.^[86] The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.^[87]: 53 The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.^[88]

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses.

During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids.^[95] The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.^[96][97]

The

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.^[100] The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.^[101] Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.^[102]

Military defeats

Aside from the loss of the

After the

In North Africa, Spain

The

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man of Europe". Three suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)

During the

The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.^[124] In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.^[124] Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written until 1928, was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.^[124] In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this.^[125][124] In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.^[124] In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.^[126]

The

In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.^[136]: 50 As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".^[137] The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.^[138] By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.^[138]

The Ottoman

From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.^[142]: 42

In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.^[143]

As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9 million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus,

The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908—1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.^[152] Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.

Members of

The Ottoman Empire entered

The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Genocides

In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5 million Armenians in the

The

The Sharifian Army, led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. The rebellion eventually took Damascus and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein.

Following the terms of the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into mandate territories. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger.

Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence

Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Istanbul was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir).

The partition of the Ottoman Empire was finalized under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.

A nationalist opposition arose in the

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Several historians, such as British historian

Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856^[176] and 1856 to 1922,^[177] respectively.

Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the

The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.

The highest position in Islam,

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.^[184]

Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the

This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.^[185]

The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.

Law

The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or Sharia.^[186][187] The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.^[188] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet.^[188] The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.^[188] The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.^[189][190]

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or 'Gate of Interpretation', Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.^[188] However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839.^[192] These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.^[193] Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.^[193]

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.^[193] In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.^[193]

Military

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the

The

The establishment of

The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.^[201]

The Eyalet (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into Sanjaks.^[202]

The

Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.^[206] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.^[207] The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.^[208]

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.^[184] This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.^[184] The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.^[209]

Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.

By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.[211]

Economic historian

A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.^[213] For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.^[214] An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.^[213]

Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.^[92][213] For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.^[215]

However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.^[216]

Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.^[217] Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.^[218]

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.^[219][220] Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.^[219]

Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.^[221] Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.^[222] Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir.^[223] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.^[124]

Language

Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire.^[224] It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic, though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.^[225] Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.^[226]

The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as

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Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.[233]

Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.^[188] Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and secession.^[233] The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.^[233] By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.^[233]

Islam

See also:

Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence,^[236] which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.^[237][238]

The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including

Hanbali school.^[242] In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid Empire

.

During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).^[16] The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the office's abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Republic of Turkey (and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France).

Christianity and Judaism

Main articles: Christianity in the Ottoman Empire and History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

In accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "people of the book", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (zakat) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or dhimmi) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the jizya, which was a key source of state revenue.^[243][244] Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.

The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the millet, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning dhimmi. A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of Mount Athos, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.^[245]

The Rum Millet, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era Corpus Juris Civilis (Code of Justinian), with the Ecumenical Patriarch designated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi, or ethnarch). Likewise, Ottoman Jews came under the authority of the Haham Başı, or Ottoman Chief Rabbi, while Armenians were under the authority of the chief bishop of the Armenian Apostolic Church.^[246] As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.^[247][248]

Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of religious pluralism, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.^[249]

Social-political-religious structure

See also: Rayah

Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.^[250][251] In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. His successor Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.^[252] The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.^[253]

The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.^[254][255] The political system was transformed by the destruction of the Janissaries, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the Auspicious Incident of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.

The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.^[256] They were primarily Greek, Armenian, or Jewish. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.

Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.^[257] In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.^[258]

At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the ayans or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.^[259]

After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.^[260]

Culture

Culture of the Ottoman Empire
Visual arts
Architecture Miniature Pottery Calligraphy
Performing arts
Shadowplay Meddah Dance Music
Languages and literature
Ottoman Turkish Poetry Prose
Sports
Oil wrestling Archery Cirit
Other
Cuisine Carpets Clothing
v t e

Main article: Culture of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.^[261]

Ottoman slave trade but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.^[246]

Plague remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."^[264]

Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.^[265]

Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Iran and Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids of Central Asia.^[266] Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.^[266] But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.^[266]

Education

Main article: Education in the Ottoman Empire

In the Ottoman Empire, each millet established a schooling system serving its members.^[267] Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.^[268]

Several "foreign schools" (Frerler mektebleri) operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.^[267] Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".^[269]

Literature

Main article:

Ottoman literature

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the İskendernâme, was composed by the poet Taceddin Ahmedi (1334–1413).^[270] Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the

verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzuli and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib. The Seyahatnâme of Evliya Çelebi

(1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose,^[271] a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât (Fancies) by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi). It was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.^{[272][273][274][275]}

Due to historically close ties with France, French literature constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements was paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poet

one-act comedy Şair Evlenmesi (The Poet's Marriage). An earlier play, a farce titled Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed (The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery), Realism (Henüz on Yedi Yaşında, 1881; Just Seventeen Years Old), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; Observations). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.^[276]

Media

Main article: Media of the Ottoman Empire

The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including

Salonika, and Smyrna.^[280] Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a lingua franca and used French-language publications,^[277] while some provincial newspapers were published in Arabic.^[281] The use of French in the media persisted until the end of the empire in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the Republic of Turkey.^[277]

Architecture

Main article: Ottoman architecture

Blue Mosque in Istanbul, an example of the classical style of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine

influence.

The architecture of the empire developed from earlier Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influences from Byzantine and Iranian architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.^{[282][283][284]} Early Ottoman architecture experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the Classical Ottoman style of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the Hagia Sophia.^[284][285] The most important architect of the Classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque.^[286][287] The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.^[288] The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of Iznik tiles.^[289]

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the Baroque architecture in Western Europe, resulting in the Ottoman Baroque style.^[290] Nuruosmaniye Mosque is one of the most important examples from this period.^[291][292] The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the Balyan family.^[293] Empire style and Neoclassical motifs were introduced and a trend towards eclecticism was evident in many types of buildings, such as the Dolmabaçe Palace.^[294] The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the First National Architectural Movement,^[295] by architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.^[293]

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as

sebil, a market, a caravanserai, a primary school, or others.^[297] These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a vakıf agreement (Arabic waqf).^[297] Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older Islamic architectural styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.^[298][299]

Decorative arts

Further information: Ottoman illumination and Ottoman miniature

The tradition of Ottoman miniatures, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the Persian art form, though it also included elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting.^[300] A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane-i-Rum, was established in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the Nakkashane-i-Irani, was added. Surname-i Hümayun (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.

Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.^[301] The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and kilims not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.^[302]

Music and performing arts

Further information:

Ottoman Music

usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes

.

The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

The traditional shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.^[303][304] It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

• 
  Miniature from Surname-i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries
• 
  The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.
• 
  Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from Surname-i Hümayun, 1720
• 
  A musical gathering in the 18th century
• 
  Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun

Cuisine

Main article: Ottoman cuisine

Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish, and including Greek, Balkan, Armenian, and Middle Eastern cuisines.^[305] Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.

Sports

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905), Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907), MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü) (1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire

Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.^[57] A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji – an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople before his death.^[306]

Ottoman Egypt in 1551, when he described a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine.^[309]

In 1660 the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.^[311]

better source needed

]

An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.^[314]

In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using steam engines for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills moving towards steam power.^[315] Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.^[315]

In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.

See also

• 16 Great Turkic Empires
• Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire
• Empire of the Sultans
• Gunpowder empires
• Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire
• Index of Ottoman Empire-related articles
• List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire
• List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire
• List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings
• List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman wars in Europe
• Outline of the Ottoman Empire
• Turkic history

References

Footnotes

1. ^ In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (قسطنطينيه) (replacing the suffix -polis with the Arabic suffix), Istanbul (استنبول) and Islambol (اسلامبول, lit. 'full of Islam'); see Names of Istanbul). Kostantiniyye became obsolete in Turkish after the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923,^[5] and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,^[6] the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use Istanbul, and that name became widely accepted internationally.^[7] Eldem Edhem, author of an entry on Istanbul in Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, stated that the majority of the Turkish people c. 2010, including historians, believe using "Constantinople" to refer to the Ottoman-era city is "politically incorrect" despite any historical accuracy.^[5]
2. Liturgical language
   ; among Arabic-speaking citizens
3. ^ Diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas.^{[8][9][10][11][12][13]}
4. ^ Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.
5. ^ Decrees in the 15th century.^[14]
6. ^ Foreign language among educated people in the post-Tanzimat/late imperial period.^[15]
7. ^ The sultan from 1512 to 1520.
8. ^ 1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.
9. Treaty of Lausanne
   on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923, which ended the Ottoman Empire in history.
10. romanized: Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye, lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State'
     • Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti
     • French: Empire ottoman, the common Western language among the educated in the late Ottoman Empire^[15]
    Minority languages
    :
     •
    Western Armenian: Օսմանեան տէրութիւն, romanized: Osmanean Têrut'iwn, lit.
     'Ottoman Authority/Governance/Rule', Օսմանեան պետութիւն, Osmanean Petut'iwn, 'Ottoman State' and Օսմանեան կայսրութիւն, Osmanean Kaysrut'iwn, 'Ottoman Empire'
     • Bulgarian: Османска империя, romanized: Otomanskata Imperiya; Отоманска империя is an archaic version. The definite article forms Османската империя and Османска империя were synonymous
     • Greek: Оθωμανική Επικράτεια, romanized: Othōmanikē Epikrateia and Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria
     •
    Ladino: Imperio otomano^[21]
11. ^ The Ottoman dynasty also held the title "caliph" from the Ottoman victory over the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo in the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517 to the abolition of the Caliphate by the Turkish Republic in 1924.
12. declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as Lanzarote in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585.^[27]
13. ^ A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335).
14. 'Ali and Faisal had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.^[166]

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273. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Archived
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274. ISBN 978-0-8156-3342-6. Archived
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275. ISBN 978-90-272-6847-1
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278. ^ Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)
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280. ISBN 978-1-317-11845-9), p. 122 Archived 14 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine
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281. ^ Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)
282. ^ "Seljuk architecture", Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.
283. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1
     . Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression.
284. ^ ^{a b} Freely 2011, p. 35 "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."
285. ISBN 978-0-86356-172-6
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286. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Archived
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287. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1
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288. ^ Eli Shah. "The Ottoman Artistic Legacy". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
289. ISBN 978-0-7141-2441-4
     .
290. ^ Freely 2011, p. 355
291. ^ Freely 2011, p. 355.
292. ^ Kuban 2010, p. 526.
293. ^ ^{a b} Freely 2011, p. 393.
294. ^ Kuban 2010, pp. 605–606.
295. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived
     from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
296. ^ Kuban 2010, p. 679.
297. ^ ^{a b} Kuban 2010.
298. ^ Kuban 2010, pp. 571–596.
299. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 251.
300. JSTOR 4629273. Archived
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301. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4
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302. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4
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303. ^ "Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play". All About Turkey. 20 November 2006. Archived from the original on 24 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
304. ^ Emin Şenyer. "Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre". Karagoz.net. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
305. ^ Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London, Prague and New York, p. 52
306. S2CID 119066552
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307. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9
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308. ISBN 978-1-107-04296-4
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309. Ahmad Y Hassan (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo
310. ^ "Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey?". How To Talk About Art History. 27 April 2017. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
311. S2CID 171015647. Archived
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312. PMID 16721484
     .
313. History. 3 November 2017. Archived
     from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2010. Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets
314. Saudi Aramco World: 10–13. Archived from the original
     on 22 November 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
315. ^
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     .

Sources

• Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.). Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey. Alexandria Press.
  ISBN 978-0-500-97374-5
  .
• Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0. Archived
  from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
• Freely, John (2011). A History of Ottoman Architecture. WIT Press.
  ISBN 978-1-84564-506-9. Archived
  from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
• Itzkowitz, Norman (1980). Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition.
  ISBN 978-0-226-38806-9
  .
• Kinross, Lord (1979). The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Harper Collins.
  ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8
  . popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
• Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club.
  ISBN 978-1-85149-604-4
  .
• Quataert, Donald (1983). Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.
• ISBN 978-0-7914-4431-3
  .
• Rogan, Eugene (2011). The Arabs: A History. Penguin.
  ISBN 978-0-465-03248-8. Archived
  from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.

Further reading

For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire.

Library resources about
Ottoman Empire

---

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

General surveys

• The Cambridge History of Turkey online Archived 5 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  • Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  • Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)
• Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp
• Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books.
  ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7
  .
• Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd.
  ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8
  .
• Howard, Douglas A. (2017). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-521-72730-3
  .
• Wikidata Q19097235
• Koller, Markus (2012), Ottoman History of South-East Europe Archived 11 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, EGO – European History Online Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Mainz: Institute of European History Archived 19 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf).
• Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9
  .
• İnalcık, Halil;
  ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3
  . Two volumes.
• Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017)
• McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. (1997) The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923 online
• Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
• Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
• ISBN 0-521-54782-2
  .
• Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." Renaissance Quarterly (2017) 70#1: 220–234 online^{[dead link]}
• Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (2003). pp. 399 excerpt Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453 (1968; new preface 1999) online
• Tabak, Faruk. The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach (2008)

Early Ottomans

• Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. U California Press.
  ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7
  .
• Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana UP.
  ISBN 978-0-933070-12-7
  .
• Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1
  .

Diplomatic and military

• Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History. 25: 85–124.
  S2CID 143042353
  .
• Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited.
  ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7
  .
• Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." Journal of Early Modern History 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; online^{[dead link]}
• Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000 ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)online^{[dead link]}.
• Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." International History Review 24.2 (2002): 253–277 online^{[dead link]}.
• Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27.2 (2007): 259–272 online^{[dead link]}.
• Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36 online.
• Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
• Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
• Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire Archived 11 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, EHO – European History Online Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Mainz: Institute of European History Archived 19 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf Archived 5 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine).
• Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
• Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal 15.2 (1961): 141–152. online Archived 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Merriman, Roger Bigelow. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944) online
• Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
• Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) online
• Nicolle, David. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
• Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
• Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press.
  ISBN 978-1-85728-389-1
  .
• Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press.
  ISBN 978-975-428-554-3
  .
• Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio.
  ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0
  .

Specialty studies

• Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
• Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008)
  ISBN 978-0-521-71533-1
• Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
• Deringil, Selim. The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
• Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980)
• McMeekin, Sean. The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)
• Mikhail, Alan. God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020)
  ISBN 978-1-63149-239-6 on Selim I
  (1470–1529)
• Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276
• Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004
  ISBN 0-297-84913-1
  .
• Yaycioglu, Ali. Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review:
  doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716. Archived
  from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2022..

Historiography

• Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. online Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • comment by Ehud R. Toledano Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine and reply by Aksan Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." International Journal of Middle East Studies 25.1 (1993): 53–69 online^{[dead link]}.
• Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).
• Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) online Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
• Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35
  S2CID 158272381. Archived
  from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
• Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends". The Journal of Modern History. 89 (4): 875–907.
  S2CID 148953435
  .
• Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. excerpt Archived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
• Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896.
  ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6. Archived
  from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
• Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" History Compass 1 (2003): 1–9.
• Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7.1 (2020): 70–73 online^{[dead link]}.
• Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." Austrian History Yearbook 48 (2017): 173–190. Online^{[dead link]}

External links

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