Ottoman cuisine
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Ottoman cuisine is the
Sources
The Ottoman palace kitchen registers (matbah-i amire defterleri) are important primary sources for studies of early modern Ottoman cuisine containing information on ingredients and names of food dishes cooked by the palace kitchens.[1]
Many cookbooks were published beginning in the 19th century reflecting the cultural fusions that characterized the rich cuisine of Istanbul's elites in the Late Ottoman period as new ingredients like tomatoes became widely available.[2][3] There are few extant recipe collections before this era.[4]
The earliest Ottoman cookbook is credited to Muhammad Shirvânî's 15th-century expansion of the earlier Arabic Kitab al-Tabikh by Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi.[5][6]
Diwan Lughat al-Turk (the earliest Turkish language dictionary) is often consulted as a source for the influence of Turkic cuisine, although scholars caution against uncritically assuming the words still meant the same thing hundreds of years later in geographically distant Anatolia.[7]
History
Influences
Ottoman cuisine represents the synthesis of
The
is often considered to be part of the central Asian heritage of the Turkic tribes. Pilaf dishes exist in both Central Asian and Persian cuisine making it difficult to trace the path of diffusion back to its starting point.New ingredients
Ottoman trade introduced new ingredients to the empire's regional cuisines, contributing to the evolving, unique character of Ottoman foodways. Levantine cuisine was enriched by the new ingredients from Asia and the Americas. Fernand Braudel credits the Ottomans with introducing rice, sesame and maize to the region.[12][13]
Although tomatoes had entered the cuisine by the 1690s, they are not found in the few recipe manuscripts that survive from the 18th century. Ayşe Fahriye has recipes for both green tomatoes (kavata) and red tomatoes (domates) in Ev Kadını. Some of the recipes like tomato pilaf and dolma are still common in modern Turkish cuisine. Fahriye's 1882 cookbook is the last mention of green tomatoes in Ottoman cooking.[14] Mehmet Kamil's influential 1844 manuscript includes recipes for tomato stew, stuffed tomato dolma and tomato pilaf.
Also from the Americas were potatoes,
Diffusion
The court cuisine was diffused through the provinces by Ottoman officials.[15]
The influence of Ottoman cuisine in Europe beginning in the early 16th century is seen in dishes like
Characteristics
The Ottoman Empire spanned three continents, representing a wide range of climate zones and flora and fauna, and so the cuisine includes not only the cuisine of the Ottoman Palace, but a rich diversity of regional specialties.[17]
Böreks and pastries
The iconic Ottoman stuffed pastry börek may be related to the triangular sanbusak pastries of Safavid cuisine. The cognate term senbuse appears in Turkish sources as early as the 13th century, becoming corrupted as samsa.[18][19] (Samsa are often associated with Uzbek cuisine.)[20][21]
The term "börek" does not appear in
Ottoman banquets in the 19th century served a mix of Alafranga and alaturca foods. At these dinners, börek was sometimes replaced by the similar French pastry, bouchée or bouchée à la Reine.[23]
The pastry
Bread
Bread was made with wheat and classified according to the quality and origin of the flour. Istanbul's demand for grain could not be met by local production alone and it received shipments from the Thracian coastlands, western Anatolia, Dobruja, Macedonia and Thessaly.[26]
Many types of bread were baked in the palace kitchens—flat white bread (fodula), loaves of good quality whole wheat (somun) and white bread (fırancala) and filo (yufka).[12] The addition of seeds like sesame and aniseed, or spices like cloves, was considered a luxury. Evliya Çelebi noted "the fine white Mudejar francala bread", referring to the European-style bread baked by the Mudéjar in Galata.[27]
Lapa, keşkek and other Ottoman porridge dishes were less expensive alternatives to white bread.
Desserts
Sugar was still prohibitively costly in the 17th century; far more common were honey and syrups like pekmez, made with grapes.
The wheat berry pudding
There are multiple competing theories of the origin of baklava, variously ascribing it to the Ancient Roman placenta cake, Perisan lauzinaj or the influence of Central Asian desserts, found also in the milky layered dessert güllaç.[16] Dernschwam describes a baklava-like dish made by cooking thin wafers of starch flour and egg white, then filling with layers of sugared nuts with rosewater and nutmeg to create a dessert about as thick as a finger.
Dernschwam describes zerde as rice pudding that is cooked in honeyed water and colored with saffron, garnished with toasted almonds and served with fruits. Muhallebi is also listed among the foods Dernschwam encountered on his travels.
Visiting Europeans noted with interest the Ottoman manner of serving sweet dishes between other courses, instead of at the end of the meal as the custom was in France and other European countries. German army officer Helmuth von Moltke whilst serving in the Ottoman Empire noted the unusual presentation of courses with the sweet courses served between roasts and other savory dishes.[28] Edward Lear's account of a banquet in Ottoman Albania similarly notes the unexpected order of courses, roast meats followed by honeyed pastries, fruits followed by shellfish, savory and salted meats and stews followed by chocolate, and so on, he says, innumerable courses were served in confounding permutations of sweet, sour and salty combinations.
Dolma
Dolma were made by stuffing whole fruits and vegetables, or by wrapping leaves around a filling, either minced meat or spiced pilaf.[29]
Dernschwam described a stuffed vegetable dish of young pumpkins and aubergines (which he calls podliczschan), stuffed with cubed mutton and garlic filling, and served with yogurt. He also describes the dish called sarma as stuffed vine leaves cooked with sour plums.
Drinks
Thomas Smith mentions boza in the 17th century Epistola de moribus ac institutis Tucarum: "They also have other liquors peculiar to them of which I shall only mention Bozza made from millet."
Fish
Jean de Thévenot described the fish market of Galata in the 17th century:
The most beautiful fish market in the world is located on the marina, on a street where fish shops occupy both sides, offering large quantities of fish of all varieties...The Greeks run many taverns/cabarets in Galata, where they attract many rascals...
Anchovies were a favorite in the coastal city of Trabzon. One of the many dishes recorded by Evliya Çelebi in his Book of Travels (Seyahatnâme) is an anchovy dish from Trebizond. Cooked in a stoneware pan, the anchovies are arranged in rows and covered with a cinnamon and black pepper scented mixture of leeks, celery, parsley and onions. The vegetable and fish layers alternate to fill up the pan, and olive oil is poured over the top. Çelebi described the dish as "like congealed light, and one who eats it is full of light ... This fish is indeed a table from heaven".[33]
Fruits, nuts and seeds
Many different fruits and nuts are recorded in the palace records.
Fruits were used to make
Cakes and bread with poppy seed filling had been consumed in Byzantium since Roman times, a tradition that continued under the Ottoman Turks, entering Central European cuisine and the related culinary culture of Ashkenazi Jews.
Meat dishes
Ottoman kebabs were slow-cooked in their own juices in earthenware casseroles (çömlek) or tandoor ovens. The recipe named "as the Turk likes it" from Hungarian noblewoman Anna Bornemisza's collection uses this technique:[38]
Sprinkle salt on the meat then roast it. Wash the rice well and boil it in water until soft. Wash the meat, place it in the pot and cover with beef or chicken juices. If you do not have these juices, boil it in melted butter, but so that it remains in one piece. When you serve it, turn it over onto a "platter", sprinkle with olive oil and a little sugar; in this way it will be tastier.
Stuffed roasted lamb with a filling of rice and raisins was served at a feast held in honor of
Hunting for food was common. Sultan
Offal
Ottoman court proceedings show that the boza peddlers claimed, by custom, exclusive rights to sell sauteed liver kebab (cığer).[43]
Rice pilaf
Rice was mostly imported from Egypt and used to make
Soups and stews
Hans Dernschwam, a 16th-century German traveler, confirms that çorba (
Soup could be thickened with a mixture of egg and flour or bread and an acidic ingredient such as lemon juice, and served over stale bread. This style of soup could be found, with some variations, in Balkan territories like Romania and Hungary, as well as in Turkey.[50]
Hand-cut soup noodles called
Spices
When Mehmed II took the city of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks gained control of the spice trade in the eastern Mediterranean.[51] Spices were used in health tonics produced by the palace confectionery that could be consumed as sweets and for health purposes, and could include up to 60 different spices in their preparation.[33]
According to Evliya Çelebi, the local melons in
A 17th-century report says that the used of spice in Istanbul was moderate and mostly limited to black pepper, but as the intensity of spice is subjective, other reports differ. The 16th-century Flemish
Sweet and sour
Sweet and sour dishes were typical of classical Ottoman cooking.[53] The Turkish epic Danishmendname records "They put lots of fig and apricot in sour dishes, as well as raisins and dates."
The sweet and sour lamb dish mutancana is rumored to have been one of Mehmed II's favorite courses. The recipe survives in Shirvani's 15th century manuscript, and some versions appear in Romanian cookbooks, most likely influenced by cultural contact with Hungary.[54]
Mahmudiyye is a sweet and sour chicken and noodle dish of note from the Shirvani manuscript.[55]
Vegetables
Palace archives from the reign of Mehmed II confirm purchases of carrots, cucumbers, eggplants, parsley, spinach and chard in the late 15th century.
Leeks are native to the eastern Mediterranean and are mentioned in the Old Testament Numbers 11:15.[56] Prasa (پراصه), as they were called, were a staple food for Salonican Jews who suffered economic hardship during the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire.[57][58]
Braising was a typical way of cooking vegetables in the 19th century Ottoman Empire, sometimes with the addition of lamb. By the 1880s printed recipes had added tomato in the preparation of braised dishes. Vegetables were also used in the preparation of stuffed dolma.[29]
Pickles
Dernschwam wrote that, while cabbage was found, the Turks did not know how to cook it with beef like the Hungarians, saying they instead pickled it, a common preparation in those days.
Palace cuisine
Background
Of the four Ottoman palaces,
Ottoman palace cuisine was amalgamated and honed in the imperial palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. These chefs were tested and hired by their method of cooking rice, a simple dish. They were brought over from various places for the express purpose of experimenting with exotic textures and ingredients and inventing new dishes.[citation needed]
Each cook specialized in specific tasks. All dishes intended for the sultan were first passed by the palate of the chesnidjibashi, or imperial food taster, who tested the food for both poison and taste. The creations of the Ottoman palace's kitchens also filtered to the common population, for instance through
Majun, compote and halva were sweets made by palace chefs.[17]
17th century
A palace register from 1692 lists different kinds of vegetables eaten in the palace, squash (kabak-ı Mısır), celery, lettuce (marul), cucumber, garlic, aubergines, borage (lisan-ı seveir), cowpeas, spinach, turnips, vine leaves, Jew's mallow (müluhiye), beets, carrots and okra. Parsley, dill, mint, and tarragon are also listed among the foodstuffs allocated for the sultan.
Salep is a drink made from the tubers of the orchid also consumed in this era.
18th century
Pepper and cinnamon were the dominant spices of the 18th-century Ottoman court, used in huge quantities, such as 118 kg (260 lb) of pepper and over 1 kg (2.2 lb) of mastic for a 15-day festival attended by various dignitaries in 1720. Black pepper was immensely popular in early modern European cuisine, and was used in nearly all Ottoman dishes.[33]
19th century
Mutton, clarified butter, flour and rice were the most common ingredients in the 19th century palace cuisine. Butter and yogurt, made with milk from Egyptian and Dutch cows, were purchased from the
Compared with earlier centuries, more fish, roe and caviar were consumed, including the pickled bonito dish called
Starch was used to make the dessert güllaç during the month of Ramadan.[12]
19th century banquets served a mix of alaturca and alafranga dishes. At an 1856 banquet celebrating Ottoman victory in the Crimean War the alaturca dishes were savory börek pastry, pilaf and the desserts kadayıf and baklava. Some of the dishes given French names were new creations of the palace kitches like croustade d'ananas en sultane and suprême de faisan à la Circassienne.[63]
Dishes
- Roasted pigeon[64]
- Ayva dolma[65] and kalye (vegetable—or fruit as in this case—cooked without meat, with olive oil and tomato salça after a short sautéing)
- Kavun dolması (stuffed melon)[66][67]
- Piyaziye[68]
İmam bayıldı
İmam bayıldı is an iconic eggplant dish with legendary folk origins. It was a dish created in the imperial kitchens that remains a popular entrée of modern Turkish cuisine.[69]
Public kitchens
Hebron
The "Table of Abraham" (simat al-Khalil) was a custom of pre-Ottoman
Jerusalem
At the
Istanbul
All travelers were welcome to three days of basic meals at the imaret in
Terminology
The culinary terminology of Ottoman Turkish includes many Persian loanwords:[8]
Other culinary terms that have entered the Turkish language reveal an assortment of linguistic influences like Italian (barbunya), Greek (fasulye), Chinese (manti) and Arabic (muhallebi).[8]
Beginning in the 19th century the Ottomans began using French culinary terms at diplomatic events.
Menus of formal banquets at the imperial court dating to the early 20th century show the use of French terms and their Turkish equivalents:
French | Turkish | English |
---|---|---|
Consommé | Et suyu | Meat stock |
Consommé à la Reine | Et suyu | Meat stock (Chicken consommé thickened with tapioca) |
Consommé de volaille glacé | Soğuk tavuk suyu | Cold chicken consommé |
Créme de fruits | Kaymaklı meyve tatlısı | Fruits with clotted cream |
Fraises voilées | Kaymaklı çilek | Strawberries with clotted cream |
Gâteux aux fruits | Meyveli pasta | Fruitcake |
Gâteux aux amandes | Bademli pasta | Almond cake |
Gâteux Marquise | Çikolata tatlısı | Chocolate Marquise cake |
Gâteux panaché | Yemişli bademli pasta | Ice-cream cake with fruits |
Dessert | Şekerleme (candies) | Dessert |
Gaufrettes Sultanié | Kaymaklı yaprak tatlısı | Sultan's waffles |
Glace | Dondurma | Ice cream |
Glace aveline | Dondurma | (Hazelnut) ice cream |
Granité glacé aux fraises | Çilekli dondurma | Strawberry sorbet |
Mont Blanc | Mont Blanc pastry | |
Neige d'Ananas | Ananaslı dondurma | Pineapple sorbet |
Tarte à la Chambord | Şambor tatlısı | Chambord dessert tart |
Vacherin Chantilly | Kremalı tatlı | Meringue dessert |
Legacy
Ottoman culinary influence survived the
It is a matter of mere speculation whether the origins of this imperial culinary legacy are to be traced back to Greek antiquity, the Byzantine heritage, or the Turkish and Arab nations, not forgetting Phoenician traditions; nowadays you may find support for any of these claims in various countries in the Balkans and the Near East.[72]
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the creation of modern nation-states in the Balkans and Middle East. Nationalist ideologies became the tools to forge integrated, shared identities by erasing the shared Ottoman heritage and identity of these many nations. The newly founded states based their national identities on the ancient past (Pharonic, Mesopotamian, Phoenician, Greek). This has made the shared culinary heritage of these nations a flashpoint as competing nationalist agendas have fought over claims to the most prestigious dishes such as baklava.[73] Fragner notes that the emergent national cuisines also represent "a good deal of local or regional culinary traditions".[74]
Bibliography
- Priscilla Mary Işın, Bountiful Empire: A History of Ottoman Cuisine, Reaktion Books, London, 2018, ISBN 9781780239040
- Marianna Yerasimos, 500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine, 2nd English edition, Boyut Publishing, İstanbul, 2007, ISBN 9789752301610
References
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- ^ Rodinson, Maxime. "Venice and the Spice Trade," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Charles Perry. Medieval Arab Cookery: Papers by Maxime Rodinson and Charles Perry with a Reprint of a Baghdad Cookery Book (2006). p. 204
- ^ Fragner, 3
- ^ a b c d e f g h "The Culinary Culture of the Ottoman Palance & Istanbul during the last period of the Empire". ResearchGate.
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- ^ McWilliams, Mark (2012). Wrapped & Stuffed Foods: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ "İzmir's Judeo-Spanish pastry boyoz to open up beyond borders". 15 November 2016.
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- ^ The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2015.
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- ^ Selçuk, Iklil. State Meets Society: A Study of Bozakhane Affairs in Bursa.
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- ^ Quartaert, Donald. Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1922. p. 175.
- ^ ""Dane-i Pilav"". 8 February 2020.
- ^ Zubaida, Sami; Tapper, Richard. A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. p. 97.
- ^ "Pilava güzelleme".
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- ^ We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.
- ISBN 9780252026973.)
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Krauth findt man, aber die t[urken] kunnens nicht kochen mit rindtfleisch wie in Vngern. Die t[urken] pflegens sawer einzumachen wie auch daussen.
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- ^ The Illuminated Table, the Prosperous House: Food and Shelter in Ottoman Material Culture. Ergon Verlag. 2003. p. 167.
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- ^ Tarım ve köyişleri bakanlığı dergisi. Yayın Dairesi Başkanlığı Matbaası. 1998.
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- ^ Fragner, p. 53
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External links
- Media related to Ottoman cuisine at Wikimedia Commons
- Culinary cultures of the Ottoman Empire