Ottoman Navy

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Ottoman Navy
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    The Ottoman Navy (

    Ottoman Turkish: Donanma-yı Humâyûn), also known as the Ottoman Fleet, was the naval warfare arm of the Ottoman Empire. It was established after the Ottomans first reached the sea in 1323 by capturing Praenetos (later called Karamürsel after the founder of the Ottoman Navy), the site of the first Ottoman naval shipyard
    and the nucleus of the future navy.

    During its long existence, the Ottoman Navy was

    expedition to Indonesia in 1565, and by the early 17th century operated as far as the Atlantic. Commensurate with the decline and modernization of the empire in the late 18th century, the Ottoman Navy stagnated, albeit remaining among the largest in the world: with nearly 200 warships, including 21 battleships, it ranked third after the British and French navies.[1]

    For much of its history, the Navy was led by the

    replaced by the Minister of the Navy (Turkish: Bahriye Nazırı) and a number of Fleet Commanders (Turkish
    : Donanma Komutanları).

    After the

    Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Navy's tradition was continued under the modern Turkish Naval Forces
    .

    History

    Pre-Ottoman Turkish fleets

    The first Turkish naval fleet in

    Byzantine admirals Constantine Dalassenos and John Doukas. In 1095 Tzachas's fleet raided the strategic port city and Gulf of Adramyttium (Edremit) on the Aegean coast of Anatolia and the city of Abydos on the Dardanelles Strait.[citation needed
    ]

    Seljuq sultan of Rûm Kayqubad I conquered Alaiye (Alanya) and formed a naval arsenal there. Alanya became the homeport of the Seljuk fleet in the Mediterranean Sea. Kayqubad I later formed a fleet in the Black Sea based in Sinope (Sinop), which, under the command of Amir Chupan, conquered parts of the Crimean Peninsula and Sugdak on the Sea of Azov (1220–1237).[citation needed
    ]

    Rise (1299–1453)

    Expansion to the Aegean, Black, Ionian and Adriatic Seas

    See also:
    Socioeconomics of Enlargement Era (Ottoman Empire)
    The Battle of Zonchio in 1499.
    Surviving fragment of the first world map of Ottoman admiral Piri Reis (1513) showing the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas.

    The conquest of the island of Kalolimno (İmralı Island) in the Sea of Marmara in 1308 marked the first Ottoman naval victory. The Ottoman fleet made its first landings on Thrace in 1321. The first Ottoman fortress in Europe was built in 1351, and the Anatolian shores of the strategic Bosporus Strait near Constantinople in 1352, and both shores of the equally strategic Dardanelles Strait were conquered by the Ottoman fleet.

    In 1373 the first landings and conquests on the Aegean shores of Macedonia were made, which was followed by the first Ottoman siege of Thessaloniki in 1374. The first Ottoman conquest of Thessaloniki and Macedonia were completed in 1387. Between 1387 and 1423 the Ottoman fleet contributed to the territorial expansions of the Ottoman Empire on the Balkan peninsula and the Black Sea coasts of Anatolia. Following the first conquests of Venetian territories in Morea, the first Ottoman-Venetian War (1423–1430) started.

    In the meantime, the Ottoman fleet continued to contribute to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the Aegean and Black Seas, with the conquests of Sinop (1424), Smyrna (1426) and the reconquest of Thessaloniki from the Venetians (1430). Albania was reconquered by the Ottoman fleet with landings between 1448 and 1479.

    Growth (1453–1683)

    See also:
    Socioeconomics of Enlargement Era (Ottoman Empire)

    In 1453 the Ottoman fleet participated in the historic conquests of

    their capital Mytilene in the island of Lesbos. This was followed by the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1463–1479
    .

    Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa defeated the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.

    In the following period the Ottoman fleet gained more territory in the Aegean Sea, and in 1475 set foot on Crimea on the northern shores of the Black Sea. Until 1499 this was followed by further expansion on the Black Sea coasts (such as the conquest of Georgia in 1479) and on the Balkan peninsula (such as the final reconquest of Albania in 1497, and the conquest of Montenegro in 1499). The loss of Venetian forts in Montenegro, near the strategic Castelnuovo, triggered the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1499–1503, during which the Turkish fleet of Kemal Reis defeated the Venetian forces at the Battle of Zonchio (1499) and the Battle of Modon (1500). By 1503 the Ottoman fleet raided the northeastern Adriatic coasts of Italy, and completely captured the Venetian lands on Morea, the Ionian Sea coast and the southeastern Adriatic Sea coast.

    According to Kâtip Çelebi a typical Ottoman fleet in the mid-17th century consisted of 46 vessels (40 galleys and 6 maona's) whose crew was 15,800 men, roughly two-thirds (10,500) were oarsmen, and the remainder (5,300) fighters.[2]

    Expansion to the Levant and Maghreb, operations in the West Mediterranean

    During the Siege of Nice in 1543, the combined forces of the Franco-Ottoman alliance managed to capture the city.
    Ottoman fleet wintering at the French port of Toulon in 1543. Miniature by Matrakçı Nasuh, who was travelling with the fleet.
    The Ottoman fleet during the Capture of Tunis at La Goulette in 1574.

    Starting from the conquest of

    Knights of St. John, was conquered by the naval fleet of Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis; Suleiman I
    let the Knights leave the island, and they relocated their base first to Sicily and later to Malta.

    In 1527 the Ottoman fleet participated in the conquest of

    Duchy of Naxos in 1537. Afterwards, the Ottoman fleet laid siege on the Venetian island of Corfu, and landed on the coasts of Calabria and Apulia, which forced the Republic of Venice and Habsburg Spain ruled by Charles V to ask the Pope to create a Holy League consisting of Spain, the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was commanded by Charles V's leading admiral, Andrea Doria. The Holy League and the Ottoman fleet under the command of Hayreddin Barbarossa met in September 1538 at the Battle of Preveza, which is often considered the greatest Turkish naval victory in history. In 1543 the Ottoman fleet participated with French forces in the siege of Nice, which at the time was part of the Duchy of Savoy. Afterwards, Francis I of France enabled the Ottoman fleet to overwinter in the French harbor of Toulon. This unique Ottoman wintering in Toulon (sometimes inaccurately called an occupation; the Ottomans merely stayed the winter and did not impose any form of governance on the populace) allowed the Ottomans to attack Habsburg Spanish and Italian ports (enemies of France); they left Toulon in May 1544. Matrakçı Nasuh, a 16th-century Ottoman Janissary, polymath, and swordmaster, reportedly participated in the wintering in Toulon.[citation needed
    ]

    In 1541, 1544, 1552 and 1555, the Spanish-Italian fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria was defeated in Algiers, Naples, Ponza, and Piombino, respectively.

    Operations in the Indian Ocean and the final conquests in North Africa

    Main article:
    Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean
    Selman Reis defending Jeddah against a Portuguese attack in 1517.
    Portuguese depiction of ships at the Indian Ocean, including an Ottoman carrack on the right.
    Dutch conquest of Aceh
    in 1874.

    In the meantime, the Ottoman Indian Ocean Fleet, based in

    Arabian peninsula, conquering Aden and Yemen (1538–1539) which were important Portuguese ports, along with Jeddah, Djibouti on the Red Sea coast. The Ottoman siege of Diu in 1538, which aimed to remove the Portuguese from India
    , failed to achieve this goal.

    Between 1547 and 1548, Yemen was reconquered from the Portuguese, while in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, other important Portuguese ports such as Oman and Qatar were conquered in 1552,[3] but the Ottomans failed to take Hormuz Island and therefore the control of the Persian Gulf remained firmly in Portuguese hands.[4]

    In 1565 the

    well-equipped fleet of 22 ships
    , which marked the easternmost Ottoman territorial expansion.

    The Ottoman naval victory at the

    Salih Reis which had conquered the coasts of Morocco beyond the Strait of Gibraltar
    in 1553.

    Operations in the Atlantic Ocean

    Starting from the early 17th century, the Ottoman fleet began to venture into the Atlantic Ocean (earlier,

    Newfoundland and Virginia.[5]

    Black Sea operations

    Caffa
    in 1616.
    trace italienne
     fortifications, and the proximity of the characteristic Ottoman siege trenches.

    Before the Ottomans, the

    Alaeddin Keykubad I, had formed a Black Sea fleet based in Sinop, which, under the command of Amir Chupan, had conquered parts of the Crimean peninsula and Sugdak on the Sea of Azov
    between 1220 and 1237.

    In the years following their

    Caffa ("Kefe" in Turkic languages.)[11] As a result of these conquests, starting from 1478, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal state and protectorate
    of the Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1774.

    The failure of the

    Caffa, Varna, Trabzon, and even the suburbs of Constantinople.[14]

    Guillaume Levasseur de Beauplan, a French military engineer, provided a first-hand account of the Cossack operations and their tactics against the Turkish ships and towns on the Black Sea Coast.[13][15] The high point of the Cossack attacks came in 1637, when a large party of Zaporozhian and Don Cossacks laid siege to the fortress of Azov. After a two-month land and sea battle, the fortress was conquered by the Cossacks.[13]

    The Ottoman Navy also engaged in blockades of Georgia's western coast during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in order to coerce local kingdoms into submission.

    Stagnation (1683–1827)

    See also:
    Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire

    In the rest of the 17th and 18th centuries, however, the operations of the Ottoman fleet were largely limited to the

    Algeria
    ) was accomplished.

    Ottoman Navy warships anchored off Ortaköy Mosque, Çırağan Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul.

    The 18th century was a period of stalemate for the Ottoman fleet, with numerous victories matched by equally numerous defeats. Important Ottoman naval victories in this period included the reconquest of Moldavia and Azov from the Russians in 1711. The Ottoman–Venetian War of 1714–1718 saw the reconquest of Morea from the Venetians and the elimination of the last Venetian island strongholds in the Aegean.

    For most of the 18th century, during a period of time in the eastern Mediterranean known by some as the Pax Ottomana, the focus of the Ottoman Navy was both on defining and defending its territorial waters from rival states and enforcing its authority over them as well as increasingly on protecting international trade routes and defending its maritime commerce from the constant problem of piracy.[16]

    However, during the

    Battle of Chesme (1770). The next Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) again saw numerous naval defeats at the hands of the Russian Black Sea Fleet under Admiral Fyodor Ushakov
    .

    During the

    Ottoman eyalet of Egypt in 1824, the far superior Ottoman-Egyptian fleet under the command of Ibrahim Pasha gained the upper hand and successfully invaded Crete and the Morea until the arrival of the combined British-French-Russian fleets which destroyed most of the Ottoman-Egyptian naval force at the Battle of Navarino
    in 1827.

    Size of crew in Ottoman ships in 1699 and 1738[17]
    Size of crew ships in 1699 ships in 1738
    1500 - 1
    1300 - 1
    1100 - 1
    1000 - 1
    800 - 6
    750 - 5
    650 - 4
    600 1 -
    500 - 1
    450 - 7
    400 2 3
    350 3 1
    300 8 1
    250 3 1
    200 3 -
    Total 20 33
    Note: Between 1699 and 1738 the Ottoman navy started to use more sailing ships who needed more crew on each ship instead of galleys with less men.

    Danube fleet

    The size of the

    frigates and 20 flat-bottomed river boats) manned by 4,070 crew.[18]

    Decline (1827–1908)

    See also:
    Decline of the Ottoman Empire
    Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Constantinople, was for many years the largest warship in the world.[19] One of the world's few completed heavy first-rate battleships, she was a ship of the line with 128 guns on 3 decks.[20] She participated in numerous naval battles, including the siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) during the Crimean War.[20]
    paddle frigates
    were the first steam-powered warships to be built in the Ottoman Empire.
    Nordenfelt-class Ottoman submarine Abdül Hamid (1886) was the first submarine in the world to fire a torpedo while submerged under water.[21]
    Ottoman submarine Abdül Hamid at the Taşkızak Naval Shipyard in Constantinople (Istanbul), 1886.

    The 19th century saw further decline in Ottoman naval power, despite occasional recovery. Following the defeat against the combined British-French-Russian fleet at the

    Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Constantinople. In the 1830s, about 2.500 Christian sailors (mainly Armenians and Greeks) were recruited in the Ottoman navy. This caused negative reactions from the Christian communities. Many Greeks from Rhodos and Chios fled to the neighboring smaller islands. In 1847, Christian sailors demanded their own priests and chapels on the warships, which was refused on the basis of Sharia. The Great Admiral and the Great Vizier were in favour of the Christians' demands, but the Sheih ul-Islam declared that Christian services on board were equivalent to the construction of new churches, and thus forbidden by religious law.[23]

    In 1875, during the reign of Sultan

    Abdülaziz, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies. But the vast size of the navy was too much of a burden for the collapsing Ottoman economy
    to sustain. Abdülhamid II was aware that the empire needed a navy to shield herself from the ever-growing Russian threat. However, the Ottoman economic crisis of 1875 and the additional financial burden of the disastrous Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) deprived the Ottoman Empire from the financial resources and economic independence to maintain and modernize a large fleet. The second half of the 19th century was a period of breakthroughs in the field of naval engineering. The Ottoman Navy was rapidly becoming obsolete, and needed to replace all her warships once a decade to keep up with the pace in technological progress – which, given the dismal state of the economy, was clearly not an option.

    Nordenfelt-class Ottoman submarine Abdül Hamid (1886) was the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo while submerged under water.[24] Two submarines of this class, Nordenfelt II (Abdül Hamid, 1886) and Nordenfelt III (Abdül Mecid, 1887) were built for the Ottoman Navy. They were built in pieces by Des Vignes (Chertsey) and Vickers (Sheffield) in England, and assembled at the Taşkızak Naval Shipyard in Constantinople (Istanbul). These submarines were an attempt to gain an edge over the Greek navy (which had only one Nordenfelt submarine, a smaller and older version). However, it was quickly realized that – like the other Nordenfelt submarines ordered by Russia – they suffered from stability problems and were too easy to swamp on the surface. The Turks could not find a crew that was willing to serve on the primitive submarines. Abdül Hamid ended up rotting at dock, while Abdül Mecid was never fully completed.[25]

    Dissolution (1908–1922)

    See also: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
    The two dreadnought battleships purchased by the Ottoman Navy but seized by the British government a short time before delivery, due to the outbreak of World War I in 1914: Sultan Osman-ı Evvel (renamed HMS Agincourt, in the foreground) and Reşadiye (renamed HMS Erin, at left).
    Sultan Osman I underway for the Ottoman Navy. The royal yacht Ertuğrul is at left, and the cruiser Hamidiye
    is in the background.

    Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress which effectively took control of the country sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The poor condition of the fleet became evident during the Ottoman Naval Parade of 1910, and the Ottoman Navy Foundation was established by the Ottoman government in order to purchase new ships through public donations. Those who made donations received different types of medals according to the size of their contributions.

    In 1910, the Ottoman Navy purchased two pre-dreadnought battleships from Germany: SMS Weissenburg and her sister ship SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm. These ships were renamed Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin, respectively.

    The

    Aegean islands other than those in the Italian-occupied Dodecanese. It also prevented Ottoman reinforcements and supplies to the land battles on the Balkan peninsula, where the Balkan League emerged victorious. The only Ottoman naval successes during the Balkan Wars were the raiding actions of the light cruiser Hamidiye under the command of Rauf Orbay
    .

    WWI
    .
    Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly SMS Goeben) in 1914

    In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, the Ottomans remained engaged in a dispute over the sovereignty of the

    Ottoman-German alliance
    on 2 August 1914, before the British naval seizures.

    World War I and aftermath

    Further information: Naval warfare of World War I § Black Sea

    The Ottomans' first military action in the

    First World War was the Black Sea raid
    and was a surprise attack by the Ottoman Navy on the Russian Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The naval raid prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. During WWI, the Ottoman Navy engaged the Entente Powers in the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

    Battle of Gallipoli in World War I. Considered in the same league as the minelayer Nusret in terms of the role that she played in the naval engagements during the battle, Muâvenet-i Millîye strongly influenced the course of the conflicts by generating a domino effect which caused the failure of the Entente
    strategy.
    Silhouettes of the warships of the Ottoman Navy, as projected for 1914 (including the undelivered dreadnought Sultan Osman-ı Evvel)

    In 1915 at the

    Battle of Gallipoli, the British and French fleets failed to pass through the Dardanelles Strait (Çanakkale Boğazı) thanks to the heavy Turkish fortifications lining the Strait, mining by Turkish minelayers like Nusret, and fierce fighting by the Turkish soldiers on land, sea and air.[26][page needed] During the battle, the British submarine HMS E11 sank Barbaros Hayreddin
    on 8 August 1915.

    In the last year of World War I, while returning from a bombardment mission of the Allied port of

    bombarded the port of Mudros, together with the communication posts and air fields of the Entente on the other parts of Lemnos. The battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim became one of the most active Ottoman warships throughout the First World War; she bombarded numerous ports on the Black Sea and Aegean Sea, while engaging with Russian dreadnought battleships of the Imperatritsa Mariya class and sinking a number of Russian and British warships and transport vessels.[citation needed
    ]

    TCG Yavuz (B-70)
    in Istanbul, 1947

    Following the end of

    Prince Islands in the Sea of Marmara under the control of Allied warships, or locked inside the Golden Horn. Some of them were scrapped[citation needed
    ].

    After the independence of the

    TCG Turgut Reis, protected cruisers TCG Hamidiye and TCG Mecidiye, torpedo cruisers Berk-i Satvet and Peyk-i Şevket, destroyers TCG Samsun, TCG Basra and TCG Taşoz, and torpedo boats TCG Burak Reis, TCG Kemal Reis, TCG Îsâ Reis and TCG Sakız
    were overhauled, repaired and modernized in the 1920s, while new ships and submarines were acquired starting from the early 1930s.

    Admirals

    Further information: List of admirals in the Ottoman Empire and List of Fleet Commanders of the Ottoman Navy
    Turkish Navy
    .
    Turkish Naval High School (1773) in Heybeliada Island near Istanbul.

    Famed Ottoman admirals include:

    The Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis crafted maps and books of navigation, including his first world map (1513) which is one of the oldest surviving maps of America and possibly the oldest surviving map of Antarctica. The first world map (1513) and second world map (1528) of Piri Reis are today preserved at the Library of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. Other works of Piri Reis are preserved at the Naval Museum in Istanbul.[27]

    Istanbul Naval Museum

    AMS radiocarbon dating and dendrochronological research.[29] She is the only surviving original galley in the world,[28][30] and has the world's oldest continuously maintained wooden hull.[31]

    The Istanbul Naval Museum is located in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, Turkey. It was established in 1897 by the Ottoman Minister of the Navy (Bahriye Nazırı) Bozcaadalı Hasan Hüsnü Pasha.[32][33]

    The museum contains an important collection of military artifacts pertaining to the Ottoman Navy.

    AMS radiocarbon dating and dendrochronological research.[29] She is the only surviving original galley in the world,[28][30] and has the world's oldest continuously maintained wooden hull.[31]

    Being connected to the Turkish Naval Forces Command, it is also the country's first military museum.[34]

    In the early 21st century a new exhibition building was constructed. The construction began in 2008, and the building was reopened on October 4, 2013. It has two floors above ground level and one basement floor, all covering 20,000 m2 (220,000 sq ft).[34]

    The basement consists of diverse items like figureheads, ornaments of naval ships, ship models, and pieces of the Byzantine chain that was used for blocking the entrance of the Golden Horn during the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453. In the first and second floors, a large number of imperial and other caïques are exhibited.

    Many exhibition items underwent special restoration and conservation works due to deformation of the raw materials caused by heat, light, humidity, atmospheric conditions, vandalism and other factors.[34]

    Gallery

    Ships

    See also

    References and sources

    1. ^ Suciu, Peter (5 March 2022). "Turkey Could Be a Naval Power in Europe Again". The National Interest. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
    2. ^ Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700, Rhoads Murphey, 1999, p. 23
    3. ^ Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis The Cambridge history of Islam 1977.
    4. ^ Soucek, Svat (June 2013), "Piri Reis. His uniqueness among cartographers and hydrographers of the Renaissance", in Vagnon, Emmanuelle; Hofmann, Catherine (eds.), Cartes marines : d'une technique à une culture. Actes du colloque du 3 décembre 2012., CFC, pp. 135–144, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 June 2018, retrieved 21 August 2016
    5. ^ a b c d e Turkish Navy Official Website: "Atlantik'te Türk Denizciliği"[permanent dead link] Szkk.tsk.tr
    6. ISBN 978-1-84603-240-0
      .
    7. ^ Turkish Raid – anniversary exhibition in Westman Islands at 5 pm Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    8. ^ "Discover South Iceland - Vestmannaeyjar, The Westman Islands". Archive.is. 24 July 2008. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
    9. ^ "Barbary pirates in Ireland: The Sack of Baltimore, Co. (...)". Divainternational.ch. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
    10. ^ "The O'Brien Press - The Stolen Village - Baltimore and the Barbary Pirates By Des Ekin". Obrien.ie. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
    11. ISBN 978-0-520-26859-3
    12. ^ "The Ottoman Navy". Naval Historical Society of Australia. 6 September 1978.
    13. ^
      ISBN 978-0-19-924161-3
      pp. 125, 131, 133–134
    14. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1
      p. 450
    15. ^ "Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan. Description d'Ukranie, qui sont plusieurs provinces du Royaume de Pologne". Litopys.org.ua. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
    16. doi:10.1163/15700658-12342524
      . Retrieved 2 November 2022.
    17. ^ Arming the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, Erik J. Zurcher, p. 45
    18. ^ Ottoman Warfare 1500-1700, Rhoads Murphey, 1999, p. 235
    19. ISBN 978-0-415-21478-0
      .
    20. ^
      ISBN 1557507260
      .
    21. ^ "Submarine Heritage Centre – Submarine History of Barrow-in-Furness". Submarineheritage.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
    22. ^ kadem, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.
    23. ^ Mehmet Hacısalihoğlu, "Inclusion and Exclusion: Conscription in the Ottoman Empire", J.of Modern European History, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2007), pp 266, 269
    24. ^ "Submarine Heritage Centre – Submarine History of Barrow-in-Furness". Submarineheritage.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
    25. ^ "The Invention of the Submarine". Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2007.
    26. ^ See Massey, Castles of Steel
    27. ^ "Turkish Naval Museum - Main Page". Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
    28. ^ a b c d "The Historical Galley". denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr. 24 November 2021. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021.
    29. ^ a b c d "Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Region II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39-48. Cambridge".
    30. ^ a b "Cornucopia Magazine". www.cornucopia.net. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
    31. ^ a b "Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation - Texas A&M University". nautarch.tamu.edu. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
    32. ^ a b The World of Learning 2004 by Michael Salzman p.1670
    33. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 September 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
    34. ^ a b c "Main Page". Deniz Müzeleri. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.

    Bibliography

    External links

    Representations in popular culture

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