Military of the Ottoman Empire
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Military of the Ottoman Empire | |
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Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri ( | |
Headquarters | Constantinople, Ottoman Empire |
Leadership | |
Commander-in-Chief | Ottoman Sultan |
Personnel | |
Conscription | Yes |
Related articles | |
Ranks | Military ranks of the Ottoman Empire |
Military of the Ottoman Empire |
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The military of the Ottoman Empire (
Army
The Military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods.[
Foundation period (1300–1453)
The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force.[7] This was centralized by Osman I from Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century.
These horsemen became an irregular force of raiders used as shock troops, armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called timars in the conquered lands, and were later called timariots. In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns.
The Ottomans began using guns in the late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regular musketeers (Piyade Topçu, literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed with firearms (Süvari Topçu Neferi, literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later European reiter or carabinier; and bombardiers (Humbaracı), consisting of grenadiers who threw explosives called khımbara and the soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies.
The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic
The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
Classical Army (1451–1606)
By the
The musket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.[17] Damascus steel was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century.[18] At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[19] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[20] In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.[21]
The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.[22]
Reform on Classical Army (1606–1826)
The main theme of this period is reforming the Janissaries. The Janissary corps were originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam[23] and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as the most efficient and effective military unit in Europe.[citation needed] By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians.
Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however the Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them from the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary. At the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary.[24]
In 1621, the Chinese
The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer
When they had requested French help in 1795, young
The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.[30]
Sultan
Efforts for a new system (1826–1858)
The main theme of this period is disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated as Auspicious Incident. The military units formed were used in the Crimean War, Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and Greco-Turkish War (1897).
The failed efforts of a new system dates before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed the
Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident).
The Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established, as a contemporary modern army.
Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes during Muhammad Ali Pasha's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed the way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make the soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha.
Modern Army (1861–1918)
The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of French system to German system occurred as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period of Ottoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs.
The
For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under the
Aviation
The
(4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft.Personnel
Recruitment
In 1389 the Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town,
Training
Ottoman Military College
The Ottoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army.
Ottoman Military Academy
Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed the academy in 1834 as the Mekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839), continued by his son Sultan Abdulmejid I (r. 1839–1861).
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773, when Sultan
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
Ranks
Classic Army
- company) and an "ocak" (troop) respectively.
- captain.
- .
Modern army
The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of the German Empire.[citation needed]
- Nefer (Private)
- Onbaşı (Corporal)
- Çavuş (Sergeant)
- Başçavuş (Sergeant major)
- Mülazım-ı Sani (Second lieutenant)
- Mülazım-ı Evvel (First lieutenant)
- Yüzbaşı (Captain)
- Kolağası(Senior Captain or Adjutant Major)
- Binbaşı (Major)
- Kaymakam (Lieutenant colonel)
- Miralay (Colonel) – commander of a regiment (alay)
- Mirliva – commander of a brigade (liva)
- Ferik – commander of a division (firka)
- Birinci Ferik – commander of a corps (Kolordu)
- Müşir (Field marshal) – commander of an army (Ordu)
Strength
Year | Yaya & Musellem | Azab | Akıncı | Timarli Sipahi | (Total) Timarli Sipahi & Cebelu | Janissary | Kapikulu Sipahi | Other Kapikulu | (Total) Kapikulu | Fortress guards, Martalos and Navy | Sekban | Nizam-ı Cedid | Total Strength of Ottoman Army |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1350 | 1,000 est. | 1,000 est. | 3,500 est. | 200 est. | 500 est. | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 6,000 est. |
1389 | 4,000 est. | 8,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 5,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 500 est. | 250 est. | 250 est. | 1,000 est. | 4,000 est. | — | — | 37,000 est. |
1402 | 8,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 1,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 2,000 est. | 6,000 est. | — | — | 81,000 est. |
1453 | 8,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 6,000[35] | 2,000 est. | 4,000 est. | 12,000 est. | 9,000 est. | — | — | 94,000 est. |
1528 | 8,180[36] | 20,000 est. | 12,000[36] | 37,741[36] | 80,000 est. | 12,000 est. | 5,000 est. | 7,000 est. | 24,146[36] | 23,017[36] | — | — | 105,084–167,343 est. |
1574 | 8,000 est. | 20,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 40,000 est. | 90,000 est. | 13,599[37] | 5,957[37] | 9,619[37] | 29,175[37] | 30,000 est. | — | — | 192,175 est. |
1607/ 1609 |
[1] | [2] | [3] | 44,404 (1607)[38] 50,000 est. (1609) | 105,339 (1607)[38] 137,000 (1609)[39] | 37,627 (1609)[40] | 20,869 (1609)[37] | 17,372 (1609)[37] | 75,868 (1609)[37] | 25,000 est. | 10,000 est. | — | 196,207–247,868 est. |
1670 | [1] | [2] | [3] | 22,000 est. | 50,000 est. | 39,470[37] | 14,070[37] | 16,756[37] | 70,296[37] | 25,000 est. | 10,000 est. | — | 70,296–155,296 est. |
1807 | [1] | [2] | [3] | 400 est. | 1,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 16,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 10.000 est. | 25,000[41] | 25,000–67,000 est. |
1826 | [1] | [2] | [3] | 400 est. | 1,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 500 est. | 500 est. | 16,000 est. | 15,000 est. | 15,000 est. | — | 47,000 est. |
Awards and decorations
The
See also
- Ottoman military reforms
- Turkish Armed Forces
- Turkish Land Forces
- Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
- Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)
Notes
- ^ (Yaya & Musellem) Yaya, light infantry, Musellem, light cavalry, over time they lost their original martial qualities and were employed only at such tasks as transportation or founding cannonballs. The organisation was totally abolished in 1582.[42]
- ^ (Azab) light infantry, during the last quarter of the 16th century, the Azabs disappeared from the Ottoman documentary record.[43]
- ^ (Akıncı) light cavalry, the Akıncıs continued to serve until 1595 when after a major rout in Wallachia they were dissolved by Grand Vezir Koca Sinan Paşa.[44]
References
- S2CID 230673286.
- ^ Burak, Begüm (2011). "Osmanlı'dan Günümüze Ordu-Siyaset İlişkileri" [Civil-Military Relations from the Ottoman Empire up to Today]. ResearchGate (in Turkish).
- .
- S2CID 203539141.
- doi:10.9737/hist_498.
- OCLC 58676516.
- ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0, 2009, p. 1.
- hdl:11693/15019. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
- ISBN 978-0850455113
- ^ Ágoston 2005, p. 92.
- ^ a b Streusand 2011, p. 83.
- ISBN 0-688-08093-6.
- ISBN 0-8050-4081-1.
- ^ Har-El 1995, pp. 98–99.
- ^ McNeill 1993, p. 125.
- ^ Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", Technikgeschichte 44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)
- ISBN 978-1136277320.
- ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.
- ISBN 978-0521603911
- ^ Needham 1986, pp. 449–452.
- ISBN 978-0521303583.
- S2CID 159617891.
- ^ The New Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. Cyril Glassé, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, p. 129
- ^ Cleveland, William L & Martin Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East: 4th ed., Westview Press: 2009, p. 43
- ^ Needham 1986, p. 446.
- ^ Tricolor and crescent William E. Watson p.11
- ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey Ezel Kural Shaw p. 255 [1]
- ISBN 978-1440067365– via Google Books.
- ^ Lehmanowsky, John Jacob (5 June 1832). "History of Napoleon, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Etc". John A.M. Duncanson – via Google Books.
- ^ Virginia H. Aksan, "Feeding the Ottoman troops on the Danube, 1768–1774." War & Society 13.1 (1995): 1–14.
- ^ Stanford J. Shaw, "The Nizam – 1 Cedid Army under Sultan Selim III 1789–1807." Oriens 18.1 (1966): 168–184 online.
- ^ David Nicolle, Armies of the Ottoman Empire 1775–1820 (Osprey, 1998).
- ^ ISBN 0-313-31516-7, p. 227.
- ^ mohammad nasiru din baba
- ^ Teaching world civilization with joy and enthusiasm, Benjamin Lee Wren, p. 146
- ^ a b c d e An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Halil İnalcik, p. 89
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Rhoads Murphey, 1999, p. 45
- ^ a b History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, page 127
- ^ Rhoads Murphey, 1999, p. 42
- ^ Guild dynamics in seventeenth-century Istanbul: fluidity and leverage, Eunjeong Yi, p. 134
- ^ The state at war in South Asia, Pradeep Barua, page 57
- ^ An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Halil İnalcik, p. 92, 1997
- ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0, 2009, p. 62.
- ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, p. 129
Bibliography and further reading
- Ágoston, Gábor (2005). Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521843133.
- Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present (1986 and other editions), passim and 1463–1464.
- S2CID 159817669.
- Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to die: a history of the Ottoman army in the First World War(2001)
- Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
- Har-El, Shai (1995). Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9004101807.
- JSTOR 544368.
- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
- Murphey, Rhoads (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813526850.
- ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
- Pálosfalvi, Tamás. From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526 (Brill, 2018)
- Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813313597.
- Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013) online
- Uyar, Mesut, and Edward J. Erickson. A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk (Pleager Security International, 2009).