Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)
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| Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560) | |||||||
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| Part of the Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations | |||||||
 The Portuguese fortress of Diu in India, strongly attacked by the Ottomans in 1538. | |||||||
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Supported by:  Ethiopian EmpireKathiri Sultanate | |||||||
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The Ottoman-Portuguese conflicts (1538 to 1560) were a period of conflict during the Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations and series of armed military encounters between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire along with regional allies in and along the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea.
Background
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After the voyages of Vasco da Gama, a powerful Portuguese Navy took control of the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century. It threatened the coastal cities of the Arabian Peninsula and India. The headquarters of the Portuguese was Goa, a city on the west coast of India, captured in 1510.
Ottoman control of the
In 1525, during the reign of
This war took place upon the backdrop of the
Course of hostilities
Siege of Diu, 1538
Major hostilities between Portugal and the Ottoman Empire began in 1538,
Suez campaign, 1541
The Portuguese under
Ethiopian campaign, 1541–1543
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At Massawa, governor Estevão da Gama responded to an appeal to assist the Christian Ethiopian Empire against invading Adalite forces.[citation needed] An expeditionary corps of 400 men were left behind, commanded by the governor's brother, Cristóvão da Gama. In February 1542, the Portuguese were able to capture an important Adalite stronghold at the Battle of Baçente. The Portuguese were again victorious at the Battle of Jarte, killing almost all of the Turkish contingent. However, Gragn then requested aid from the Ottoman governor of Yemen in Aden, who sent 2000 Arabian musketeers, 900 Turkish pikemen, 1000 Turkish foot musketeers, some Shqiptar foot soldiers (with muskets) and Turkish horsemen. In the Battle of Wofla, Somali and Turkish forces defeated the Portuguese, Da Gama was captured, and upon refusing to convert to Islam, executed. [citation needed]
Gelawdewos was eventually able to reorganize his forces and absorb the remaining Portuguese soldiers, defeating and slaying Gragn at the Battle of Wayna Daga, marking the end of the Ethiopian-Adal war (although warfare would resume not long after, at a much-diminished scale).
Aden revolt, 1548
The aim of the second expedition was to restore Ottoman authority in the Red Sea and Yemen. The new admiral was
Siege of Qatif, 1551
In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Basra captured the fort of Qatif on the Arabian Peninsula, owned by a vassal of the Portuguese, the King of Hormuz. The Portuguese, together with their Hormuzi vassals successfully sieged and captured the fort from the Ottomans, whose garrison fled under the cover of the night. The fort was then razed afterward.
Piri Reis expedition, 1552
Three years later Piri Reis sailed out from Suez again with 30 ships and the goal of wresting
Following these events, the Portuguese dispatched considerable reinforcements to Hormuz, and the following year defeated an Ottoman fleet at the Battle of the Strait of Hormuz.
Murat Reis the Elder Expedition and Battle of the Strait of Hormuz, 1553
In 1553, the Portuguese soundly defeated an Ottoman fleet led by Murat Reis the Elder in the Battle of the Strait of Hormuz. The purpose of this expedition was to bring the fleet back to Suez. The new Ottoman admiral was the former sanjak-bey (governor) of Qatif. While trying to sail out of the Persian Gulf, he encountered a large Portuguese fleet commanded by Dom Diogo de Noronha.[13][circular reference] In the largest open-sea engagement between the two countries, Murat was defeated by the Portuguese fleet and had returned to Basra.[14][15]
Seydi Ali Reis Expedition and Battle of the Gulf of Oman, 1554
The route from
Red Sea Campaign, 1556
In early 1556, two Portuguese galleys under the command of João Peixoto sailed into the Red Sea to collect information regarding Ottoman preparations at Suez.[17] Having found everything to be quiet there, he set sail to the city of Suakin, where he arrived one night. Finding the city asleep, Peixoto landed with his men and killed many, including the ruler, and captured considerable spoil.[17] He departed the following day, and keeping close to shore sacked a number of towns en route to Goa.[17]
Siege of Bahrain, 1559
In 1559 the Ottomans laid siege to Bahrain, which had been conquered by the Portuguese in 1521 and ruled indirectly since then,[18] but the forces led by the Governor of Al-Hasa were decisively beaten back.[19] After this, the Portuguese effectively controlled the entirety of the naval traffic in the Persian Gulf. They raided the Ottoman coastal city of Al-Katif during this time, in 1559.[20]
Battle of Kamaran Island, 1560
In 1560 the Turkish privateer Sefer Reis captured two Portuguese warships by Kamaran Island in the Red Sea.
Aftermath
The original Ottoman goals of checking Portuguese domination in the ocean and assisting Muslim Indian lords were not achieved. This was in spite of what an author has called "overwhelming advantages over Portugal", as the Ottoman Empire was wealthier and much more populous than Portugal, professed the same religion as most coastal populations of the Indian Ocean basin and its naval bases were closer to the theater of operations.[12]
On the other hand, Yemen, as well as the west bank of the Red Sea, roughly corresponding to a narrow coastal strip of
With its strong control of the Red Sea, the Ottomans successfully managed to dispute control of the trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire throughout the 16th century.[22]
Sometimes, Ottoman assistance to
It is known that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, the grand vizier of the empire between 1565 and 1579, had proposed a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas. If that project could have been realized, it would be possible for the navy to pass through the canal and eventually into the Indian Ocean. However, this project was beyond the technological capabilities of the 16th century. The Suez Canal was not opened until some three centuries later, in 1869, by the largely autonomous Khedivate of Egypt.
Unable to decisively defeat the Portuguese or threaten their shipping, the Ottomans abstained from further substantial action, choosing instead to supply Portuguese enemies such as the
See also
- Military history of Portugal
- Siege of Malacca (1568)
- Kingdom of Ormus
- Conquest of Tunis (1535)
- Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1586–1589)
- Gujarati–Portuguese conflicts
- Somali–Portuguese conflicts
- Acehnese-Portuguese conflicts
Notes
- ^ a b Mesut Uyar, Edward J. Erickson, A military history of the Ottomans: from Osman to Atatürk, ABC CLIO, 2009, p. 76, "In the end both Ottomans and Portuguese had the recognize the other side's sphere of influence and tried to consolidate their bases and network of alliances."
- ISBN 9781566390682.
- ^ "Piri Reis' map". Archived from the original on 2013-08-13. Retrieved 2011-04-16.
- ^ History cooperative Archived 2011-05-25 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Essays on Hurmuz" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2011-04-16.
- ISBN 978-975-21-0955-1, p.237
- ^ Prof Dr. Yaşar Yücel-Prof Dr. Ali Sevim :Türkiye Tarihi II, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları,1990,İstanbul [page needed]
- JSTOR 41929749.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1p.467
- ^ Holt, Lambton, Lewis, p. 332
- ^ World map of Piri Reis
- ^ a b Soucek, Svat (June 2013), "Piri Reis. His uniqueness among cartographers and hydrographers of the Renaissance", in Vagnon, Emmanuelle; Hofmann, Catherine (eds.), Cartes marines : d'une technique à une culture. Actes du colloque du 3 décembre 2012., CFC, pp. 135–144, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-06-27, retrieved 2016-08-21
- ^ "Battle of the Strait of Hormuz (1553)".
- ISBN 978-0-19-537782-8, p. 99.
- ^ Giancarlo Casale: The Ottoman age of Exploration, Oxford University Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-19-537782-8, p. 99.
- ^ Summary of Mir'at ül Memalik
- ^ a b c Frederick Charles Danvers: The Portuguese In India, Being a History of the Rise and Decline of Their Eastern Empire, W. H. Allen & Co. Limited, Vol. 1, 1894, p. 507.
- ^ Larsen 1983, p. 68.
- ISBN 9780521514354.
- ^ İnalcık & Quataert 1994, p. 337.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Expo 70 ed, Vol.22, p.372
- ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey by Ezel Kural Shaw p. 107 [1] Archived 26 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "International Conference of Aceh and Indian Ocean" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-01-19. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ Dumper & Stanley 2007, p. 74.
- ^ Shillington 2013, p. 954.
References
- Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis The Cambridge history of Islam 1977. [ISBN missing]
- Attila and Balázs Weiszhár: Lexicon of War (Háborúk lexikona), Athenaum publisher, Budapest 2004.
- Britannica Hungarica, Hungarian encyclopedia, Hungarian World publisher, Budapest 1994.
- Shillington, Kevin (2013). Encyclopedia of African History. ISBN 978-1135456702.
- Dumper, Michael R.T.; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: a Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1576079195.
- İnalcık, Halıl; Quataert, Donald (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0521343152.
- Larsen, Curtis E. (1983). Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: the Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-46906-5.
- Nuno Vila-Santa, "Between Ottomans and Gujaratis: D. Diogo de Noronha, the Repositioning of Diu in the Indian Ocean, and the Creation of the Northern Province (1548–1560)", Asian Review of World Histories, Volume 8 (2020): Issue 2 (Jul 2020), pp. 207–233. [2]