Transhumanism
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Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement that advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies that can greatly enhance longevity, cognition, and well-being.[1][2][3]
Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of
Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against
Julian Huxley was a biologist who popularised the term transhumanism in a 1957 essay.[6] The contemporary meaning of the term "transhumanism" was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology, a man who changed his name to FM-2030. In the 1960s, he taught "new concepts of the human" at The New School when he began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles, and worldviews "transitional" to posthumanity as "transhuman".[7] The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.[7][8][9]
Influenced by seminal works of science fiction, the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has attracted many supporters and detractors from a wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion.[7]
In 2017, Penn State University Press, in cooperation with philosopher Stefan Lorenz Sorgner and sociologist James Hughes, established the Journal of Posthuman Studies[10] as the first academic journal explicitly dedicated to the posthuman, with the goal of clarifying the notions of posthumanism and transhumanism, as well as comparing and contrasting both.
Transhumanism is often compared, especially in the media, to the Nazi project to improve the race in a eugenic sense. This is denied by Sorgner: "It is also false to identify transhumanists with Nazi ideology, as Habermas does, because Nazis are in favor of a totalitarian political organization, whereas transhumanists uphold the value of liberal democracies."[11]
History
Precursors of transhumanism
According to
Transhumanists draw upon and claim continuity from intellectual and cultural traditions such as the ancient philosophy of Aristotle or the scientific tradition of Roger Bacon.[12] In his Divine Comedy, Dante coined the word trasumanar meaning "to transcend human nature, to pass beyond human nature" in the first canto of Paradiso.[13][14][15][16]
The interweaving of transhumanist aspirations with the scientific imagination can be seen in the works of some precursors of
In his first edition of
There is debate about whether the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche can be considered an influence on transhumanism, despite its exaltation of the Übermensch (overhuman), due to its emphasis on self-actualization rather than technological transformation.[2][22][23][24] The transhumanist philosophies of Max More and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner have been influenced strongly by Nietzschean thinking.[22] By way of contrast, The Transhumanist Declaration "...advocates the well-being of all sentience (whether in artificial intellects, humans, posthumans, or non-human animals)".[25]
The late 19th to early 20th century movement known as
Early transhumanist thinking
Fundamental ideas of transhumanism were first advanced in 1923 by the British geneticist J. B. S. Haldane in his essay Daedalus: Science and the Future, which predicted that great benefits would come from the application of advanced sciences to human biology—and that every such advance would first appear to someone as blasphemy or perversion, "indecent and unnatural".[28] In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence.
His article inspired academic and popular interest.
The biologist Julian Huxley is generally regarded as the founder of transhumanism after using the term for the title of an influential 1957 article.[6] The term itself, however, derives from an earlier 1940 paper by the Canadian philosopher W. D. Lighthall.[30] Huxley describes transhumanism in these terms:
Up till now human life has generally been, as Hobbes described it, "nasty, brutish and short"; the great majority of human beings (if they have not already died young) have been afflicted with misery… we can justifiably hold the belief that these lands of possibility exist, and that the present limitations and miserable frustrations of our existence could be in large measure surmounted… The human species can, if it wishes, transcend itself—not just sporadically, an individual here in one way, an individual there in another way, but in its entirety, as humanity.[6]
Huxley's definition differs, albeit not substantially, from the one commonly in use since the 1980s. The ideas raised by these thinkers were explored in the science fiction of the 1960s, notably in Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which an alien artifact grants transcendent power to its wielder.[31]
Japanese
After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a "brain wave receiver" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa. What I think will be known by all the people. There is no more individual consciousness, only the will of mankind as a whole.[33]
Artificial intelligence and the technological singularity
The concept of the
Let an ultraintelligent machine be defined as a machine that can far surpass all the intellectual activities of any man however clever. Since the design of machines is one of these intellectual activities, an ultraintelligent machine could design even better machines; there would then unquestionably be an "intelligence explosion," and the intelligence of man would be left far behind. Thus the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make.[34]
Growth of transhumanism
The first self-described transhumanists met formally in the early 1980s at the
In 1986, Eric Drexler published Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology,[45] which discussed the prospects for nanotechnology and molecular assemblers, and founded the Foresight Institute. As the first non-profit organization to research, advocate for, and perform cryonics, the Southern California offices of the Alcor Life Extension Foundation became a center for futurists. In 1988, the first issue of Extropy Magazine was published by Max More and Tom Morrow. In 1990, More, a strategic philosopher, created his own particular transhumanist doctrine, which took the form of the Principles of Extropy, and laid the foundation of modern transhumanism by giving it a new definition:[46]
Transhumanism is a class of philosophies that seek to guide us towards a posthuman condition. Transhumanism shares many elements of humanism, including a respect for reason and science, a commitment to progress, and a valuing of human (or transhuman) existence in this life. [...] Transhumanism differs from humanism in recognizing and anticipating the radical alterations in the nature and possibilities of our lives resulting from various sciences and technologies [...].
In 1992, More and Morrow founded the
- The intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities.
- The study of the ramifications, promises, and potential dangers of technologies that will enable us to overcome fundamental human limitations, and the related study of the ethical matters involved in developing and using such technologies.
In possible contrast with other transhumanist organizations, WTA officials considered that social forces could undermine their
The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006.[56] By 2012, it consisted of hundreds of members.[57]
The first transhumanist elected member of a parliament has been Giuseppe Vatinno, in Italy.[58]
Theory
It is a matter of debate whether transhumanism is a branch of
A common feature of transhumanism and philosophical posthumanism is the future vision of a new intelligent species, into which humanity will evolve and eventually will supplement or supersede it. Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e.
Nevertheless, the idea of creating
Some secular humanists conceive transhumanism as an offspring of the humanist freethought movement and argue that transhumanists differ from the humanist mainstream by having a specific focus on technological approaches to resolving human concerns (i.e. technocentrism) and on the issue of mortality.[70] However, other progressives have argued that posthumanism, whether it be its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice, from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings for a transcendence of the human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being.[71]
As an alternative, humanist philosopher Dwight Gilbert Jones has proposed a renewed Renaissance humanism through DNA and genome repositories, with each individual
The philosophy of transhumanism is closely related to technoself studies, an interdisciplinary domain of scholarly research dealing with all aspects of human identity in a technological society and focusing on the changing nature of relationships between humans and technology.[72]
Aims
You awake one morning to find your brain has another lobe functioning. Invisible, this auxiliary lobe answers your questions with information beyond the realm of your own memory, suggests plausible courses of action, and asks questions that help bring out relevant facts. You quickly come to rely on the new lobe so much that you stop wondering how it works. You just use it. This is the dream of artificial intelligence.
While many transhumanist theorists and advocates seek to apply
Transhumanist philosophers argue that there not only exists a perfectionist ethical imperative for humans to strive for progress and improvement of the human condition, but that it is possible and desirable for humanity to enter a transhuman phase of existence in which humans enhance themselves beyond what is naturally human. In such a phase, natural evolution would be replaced with deliberate participatory or directed evolution.
Some theorists such as
While many people believe that all transhumanists are striving for immortality, it is not necessarily true. Hank Pellissier, managing director of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (2011–2012), surveyed transhumanists. He found that, of the 818 respondents, 23.8% did not want immortality.[77] Some of the reasons argued were boredom, Earth's overpopulation and the desire "to go to an afterlife".[77]
Empathic fallibility and conversational consent
Certain transhumanist philosophers hold that since all assumptions about what others experience
Ethics
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Transhumanists engage in
A belief of counter-transhumanism is that transhumanism can cause unfair human enhancement in many areas of life, but specifically on the social plane. This can be compared to steroid use, where athletes who use steroids in sports have an advantage over those who do not. The same scenario happens when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in the work place and in educational aspects.[84] Additionally, there are many, according to M.J. McNamee and S.D. Edwards, who fear that the improvements afforded by a specific, privileged section of society will lead to a division of the human species into two different and distinct species.[85] The idea of two human species, one being at a great physical and economic advantage in comparison with the other, is a troublesome one at best. One may be incapable of breeding with the other, and may by consequence of lower physical health and ability, be considered of a lower moral standing than the other.[85]
Nick Bostrom stated that transhumanism advocates for the wellbeing of all sentient beings, whether in non-human animals, extra-terrestrials or artificial forms of life.[86] This view is reiterated by David Pearce, who advocates for the use of biotechnology to eradicate suffering in all sentient beings.[87]
Currents
There is a variety of opinions within transhumanist thought. Many of the leading transhumanist thinkers hold views that are under constant revision and development.[88] Some distinctive currents of transhumanism are identified and listed here in alphabetical order:
- Abolitionism, the concept of using biotechnology to eradicate suffering in all sentient beings.[87]
- Democratic transhumanism, a political ideology synthesizing liberal democracy, social democracy, radical democracy and transhumanism.[89]
- Equalism, a socioeconomic theory based upon the idea that emerging technologies will put an end to social stratification through even distribution of resources in the technological singularity era.[90]
- Extropianism, an early school of transhumanist thought characterized by a set of principles advocating a proactive approach to human evolution.[46]
- Immortalism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that radical life extension and technological immortality is possible and desirable, and advocating research and development to ensure its realization.[91]
- Libertarian transhumanism, a political ideology synthesizing libertarianism and transhumanism.[83]
- Postgenderism, a social philosophy which seeks the voluntary elimination of gender in the human species through the application of advanced biotechnology and assisted reproductive technologies.[92]
- Postpoliticism, a transhumanist political proposal that aims to create a "postdemocratic state" based on reason and free access of enhancement technologies to people.[93]
- Singularitarianism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that a technological singularity is possible, and advocating deliberate action to effect it and ensure its safety.[74]
- Technogaianism, an ecological ideology based upon the belief that emerging technologies can help restore Earth's environment and that developing safe, clean, alternative technology should therefore be an important goal of environmentalists.[89]
Spirituality
Although many transhumanists are
Some transhumanists believe in the compatibility between the human mind and computer hardware, with the theoretical implication that human
Viewed from the perspective of some Christian thinkers, the idea of mind uploading is asserted to represent a
The first dialogue between transhumanism and
Since 2006, the Mormon Transhumanist Association sponsors conferences and lectures on the intersection of technology and religion.[108] The Christian Transhumanist Association[109] was established in 2014.
Since 2009, the American Academy of Religion holds a "Transhumanism and Religion" consultation during its annual meeting, where scholars in the field of religious studies seek to identify and critically evaluate any implicit religious beliefs that might underlie key transhumanist claims and assumptions; consider how transhumanism challenges religious traditions to develop their own ideas of the human future, in particular the prospect of human transformation, whether by technological or other means; and provide critical and constructive assessments of an envisioned future that place greater confidence in nanotechnology, robotics and information technology to achieve virtual immortality and create a superior posthuman species.[110]
The physicist and transhumanist thinker
Practice
While some transhumanists[who?] take an abstract and theoretical approach to the perceived benefits of emerging technologies, others have offered specific proposals for modifications to the human body, including heritable ones. Transhumanists are often concerned with methods of enhancing the human nervous system. Though some, such as Kevin Warwick, propose modification of the peripheral nervous system, the brain is considered the common denominator of personhood and is thus a primary focus of transhumanist ambitions.[112]
In fact, Warwick has gone a lot further than merely making a proposal. In 2002 he had a 100 electrode array surgically implanted into the median nerves of his left arm to link his nervous system directly with a computer and thus to also connect with the internet. As a consequence, he carried out a series of experiments. He was able to directly control a robot hand using his neural signals and to feel the force applied by the hand through feedback from the fingertips. He also experienced a form of ultrasonic sensory input and conducted the first purely electronic communication between his own nervous system and that of his wife who also had electrodes implanted.[113]
As proponents of
While most transhumanist theory focuses on future technologies and the changes they may bring, many today are already involved in the practice on a very basic level. It is not uncommon for many to receive cosmetic changes to their physical form via cosmetic surgery, even if it is not required for health reasons. Human growth hormones attempt to alter the natural development of shorter children or those who have been born with a physical deficiency. Doctors prescribe medicines such as Ritalin and Adderall to improve cognitive focus, and many people take "lifestyle" drugs such as Viagra, Propecia, and Botox to restore aspects of youthfulness that have been lost in maturity.[116]
Other transhumanists, such as cyborg artist Neil Harbisson, use technologies and techniques to improve their senses and perception of reality. Harbisson's antenna, which is permanently implanted in his skull, allows him to sense colours beyond human perception such as infrareds and ultraviolets.[117]
Technologies of interest
Transhumanists support the
Some reports on the converging technologies and NBIC concepts have criticised their transhumanist orientation and alleged
Neuroscientist Anders Sandberg has been practicing on the method of scanning ultra-thin sections of the brain. This method is being used to help better understand the architecture of the brain. As of now, this method is currently being used on mice. This is the first step towards hypothetically uploading contents of the human brain, including memories and emotions, onto a computer.[124][125]
Debate
The very notion and prospect of human enhancement and related issues arouse public controversy.[126] Criticisms of transhumanism and its proposals take two main forms: those objecting to the likelihood of transhumanist goals being achieved (practical criticisms) and those objecting to the moral principles or worldview sustaining transhumanist proposals or underlying transhumanism itself (ethical criticisms). Critics and opponents often see transhumanists' goals as posing threats to human values.
The human enhancement debate is, for some, framed by the opposition between strong bioconservatism and transhumanism. The former opposes any form of human enhancement, whereas the latter advocates for all possible human enhancements [127] However, many philosophers engaged in the continuing debate hold a more nuanced view in favour of some enhancements while rejecting the transhumanist carte blanche approach.[128]
Some of the most widely known critiques of the transhumanist program are novels and fictional films. These works of art, despite presenting imagined worlds rather than philosophical analyses, are used as touchstones for some of the more formal arguments.[7] Various arguments have been made to the effect that a society that adopts human enhancement technologies may come to resemble the dystopia depicted in the 1932 novel Brave New World by Aldous Huxley.[129]
On another front, some authors consider that humanity is already transhuman, because medical advances in recent centuries have significantly altered our species. However, it is not in a conscious and therefore transhumanistic way.[130] From such perspective, transhumanism is perpetually aspirational: as new technologies become mainstream, the adoption of new yet-unadopted technologies becomes a new shifting goal.
Feasibility
In a 1992 book, sociologist Max Dublin pointed to many past failed predictions of technological progress and argued that modern futurist predictions would prove similarly inaccurate. He also objected to what he saw as scientism, fanaticism and nihilism by a few in advancing transhumanist causes. Dublin also said that historical parallels existed between Millenarian religions and Communist doctrines.[131]
Although generally sympathetic to transhumanism, public health professor
In her 1992 book Science as Salvation, philosopher
Another critique is aimed mainly at "
As a practical matter, however, international protocols on human subject research may not present a legal obstacle to attempts by transhumanists and others to improve their offspring by germinal choice technology. According to legal scholar Kirsten Rabe Smolensky, existing laws would protect parents who choose to enhance their child's genome from future liability arising from adverse outcomes of the procedure.[136]
Transhumanists and other supporters of human genetic engineering do not dismiss practical concerns out of hand, insofar as there is a high degree of uncertainty about the timelines and likely outcomes of genetic modification experiments in humans. However,
Thinkers[who?] who defend the likelihood of accelerating change point to a past pattern of exponential increases in humanity's technological capacities. Kurzweil developed this position in his 2005 book The Singularity Is Near.
Intrinsic immorality
It has been argued that, in transhumanist thought, humans attempt to substitute themselves for
Other critics target what they claim to be an instrumental conception of the human body in the writings of Marvin Minsky,
Nick Bostrom responds that the desire to
Loss of human identity
In his 2003 book Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age,
Writing in
A different response comes from transhumanist
At least one
Socioeconomic effects
Some critics of
These criticisms are also voiced by
Sometimes, as in the writings of
In a 2004 article in the libertarian monthly
Cultural aesthetics
In addition to the socio-economic risks and implications of transhumanism, there are indeed implications and possible consequences in regard to cultural aesthetics. Currently, there are a number of ways in which people choose to represent themselves in society. The way in which a person dresses, hair styles, and body alteration all serve to identify the way a person presents themselves and is perceived by society. According to Foucault,[159] society already governs and controls bodies by making them feel watched. This "surveillance" of society dictates how the majority of individuals choose to express themselves aesthetically.
One of the risks outlined in a 2004 article by Jerold Abrams is the elimination of differences in favor of universality. This, he argues, will eliminate the ability of individuals to subvert the possibly oppressive, dominant structure of society by way of uniquely expressing themselves externally. Such control over a population would have dangerous implications of tyranny. Yet another consequence of enhancing the human form not only cognitively, but physically, will be the reinforcement of "desirable" traits which are perpetuated by the dominant social structure.[159]
Specter of coercive eugenicism
Some critics of transhumanism[
The major transhumanist organizations strongly condemn the
Existential risks
In his 2003 book Our Final Hour, British Astronomer Royal Martin Rees argues that advanced science and technology bring as much risk of disaster as opportunity for progress. However, Rees does not advocate a halt to scientific activity. Instead, he calls for tighter security and perhaps an end to traditional scientific openness.[165] Advocates of the precautionary principle, such as many in the environmental movement, also favor slow, careful progress or a halt in potentially dangerous areas. Some precautionists believe that artificial intelligence and robotics present possibilities of alternative forms of cognition that may threaten human life.[166]
Transhumanists do not necessarily rule out specific restrictions on emerging technologies so as to lessen the prospect of
One transhumanist solution proposed by Bostrom to counter existential risks is control of differential technological development, a series of attempts to influence the sequence in which technologies are developed. In this approach, planners would strive to retard the development of possibly harmful technologies and their applications, while accelerating the development of likely beneficial technologies, especially those that offer protection against the harmful effects of others.[75]
Antinatalism
Although most people zoom in on the technological and scientific barriers on the road to transhumanist enhancement, Robbert Zandbergen argues that contemporary transhumanists' failure to critically engage the movement of antinatalism is a far larger obstacle to a better future. Antinatalism is the movement to restrict or terminate human reproduction as the final means to solve our existential problems. If transhumanists fail to take this threat to human perseverance seriously, they run the risk of collapsing the entire edifice of radical enhancement.[168]
See also
- Android
- Assisted reproductive technology
- The Beginning of Infinity
- Body hacking
- Christian perfection, position in Christianity whose opponents claim entails humans losing their original sin
- Cyberware
- Cyborg
- Digital immortality
- Do-it-yourself biology
- Eclipse Phase
- Egotheism
- Fringe science
- Future of Humanity Institute
- Hard science fiction
- Institute on Biotechnology and the Human Future
- Kardashev scale
- Meliorism
- Metabolic supermice
- Orion's Arm
- Participant evolution
- Posthumanization
- Particulates
- Pollution
- Quantified self
- Respirocyte
- TechnoCalyps
- Technological dystopia
- Technological utopia
- Transhumanism in fiction
- Transhuman Space
- Life Extension
- Neuralink
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Further reading
- Adorno, F. P. (2021). The Transhumanist Movement. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-3-030-82423-5.
- Cole-Turner, Ronald, ed. (2011). Transhumanism and transcendence: Christian hope in an age of technological enhancement. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-780-1.
- Frodeman, R. (2019). Transhumanism, Nature, and the Ends of Science. ISBN 978-0-367-18939-6.
- Hansell, Gregory R; Grassie, William, eds. (2011). H+/-: Transhumanism and Its Critics. Philadelphia: Metanexus Institute. ISBN 978-1-45681-567-7.
- ISBN 978-3-8376-5059-4.
- Maher, Derek F.; Mercer, Calvin, eds. (2009). Religion and the implications of radical life extension (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-10072-5.
- Mercer, Calvin; Trothen, Tracy, eds. (2014). Religion and transhumanism: the unknown future of human enhancement. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-1-4408-3325-0.
- Mercer, Calvin; Maher, Derek, eds. (2014). Transhumanism and the Body: The World Religions Speak. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-36583-5.
- More, Max; Vita-More, Natasha, eds. (2013). The transhumanist reader: classical and contemporary essays on the science, technology, and philosophy of the human future (1.publ. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-33429-4.
- Pilsch, A. (2017). Transhumanism: Evolutionary Futurism and the Human Technologies of Utopia. ISBN 978-1-4529-5488-2.
- Ranisch, Robert; Sorgner, Stefan Lorenz, eds. (2014). Post- and Transhumanism. Bruxelles: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-60662-9.
External links
- H+Pedia Transhumanist Wiki
- What is Transhumanism?