Overhill Cherokee
Overhill Cherokee was the term for the
Situated along the lower Little Tennessee, lower Tellico, lower Hiwassee and upper Tennessee rivers, the Overhill towns rose to prominence within the Cherokee Nation in the early 18th century. They began to standardize trade with British colonists. In the early part of the century, the Overhill towns' remote location at the far end of the Trading Path meant they were reached only by those traders and explorers adventurous enough to make the difficult journey to the interior over the mountain range. By the middle of the century, the Overhill towns were consistently courted by both British and French emissaries, as the two powers struggled for the control of the North American continent and the lucrative fur trade.
During and following the American Revolutionary War, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the westward thrust of Euro-American settlement resulted in conflict and the decline of the Overhill towns. The Cherokee were forced to cede most of their lands in this area through a series of unfavorable treaties with the United States. For a time, they migrated to the south and west, deeper into Georgia and Alabama, and away from settler pressure.[1]
The Overhill town of
20th century to present
In the 1970s, most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the
Geography
The Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the
Although Native Americans used most of the western side of the Great Smoky Mountains primarily as a hunting ground, early Euro-American explorers recalled seeing abandoned villages and temporary hunting camps scattered around the region. These were often found in the game-rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams.[3][4]
Prominent Overhill villages
Tomotley – located in present-day Monroe County, adjacent to Toqua along the Little Tennessee River. Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley where a "death hallow" was sounded to signify the return of a war party.[6] 35°34′19″N 84°11′13″W / 35.57182°N 84.18697°W
Toqua (Dakwa) – located in present-day Monroe County, at the confluence of Toco Creek and the Little Tennessee River, just south of modern-day Fort Loudoun State Park. 35°34′11″N 84°10′21″W / 35.56984°N 84.17248°W
Tanasi – located in present-day Monroe County, adjacent to Chota along the Little Tennessee River. The town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c. 1721–1730. The Little Tennessee was originally simply called the "Tennessee," which was an alternate spelling of "Tanasi." European-American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state.[7] 35°33′00″N 84°08′01″W / 35.55005°N 84.13374°W
Chota (Itsa'sa) – located in present-day Monroe County, along the Little Tennessee River, about 10 miles (16 km) south of modern-day Vonore. Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid-18th century, considered a 'mother town,' and the birthplace of several prominent chiefs. At the time of Timberlake's visit in 1761, Chota was centered around a large councilhouse, which could seat 500, and about 60 residential houses.[8] The town's name is sometimes spelled "Echota." 35°33′18″N 84°07′52″W / 35.55507°N 84.13104°W
Chilhowee (Tsu'lun'we) – located in present-day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River. The junction of modern U.S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby. 35°33′08″N 84°00′27″W / 35.55231°N 84.00737°W
Tallassee (Ta'lasi) – located in present-day Blount and Monroe counties along the Little Tennessee River, a mile or so downstream from the modern Calderwood Dam. The modern town of Tallassee is situated much further downstream, and its location should not be confused with that of the ancient village.[9] The Cherokee Tallassee is sometimes referred to as "Tallassee Old Town." 35°30′20″N 84°00′01″W / 35.50556°N 84.00028°W
Great Hiwassee (Ayouwasi) – located in present-day Polk County, along the Hiwassee River at the base of the Unicoi Mountains, where the river levels into a fertile plain. The site has been developed as farmland. The term Hiwassee means "savanna" or "plain."[11] Hiwassee is sometimes called "Hiwassee Old Town." 35°14′35″N 84°34′53″W / 35.24314°N 84.58149°W
Trails and paths
The Overhill settlements were connected by a series of well-established Native American trails:
- The Great Indian Warpath ran parallel to the base of the Appalachians, connecting the Overhill settlements to Cherokee villages in Georgia and Virginia.
- The Trading Path (later called the Unicoi Turnpike) connected the Overhill towns with the Middle settlements in North Carolina, the Lower towns in South Carolina, and extended to Charleston, South Carolina.
- The Warriors' Path connected Hiwassee Old Town, Great Tellico, and Chota.
- A branch of the Tuckaleechee and Southeastern Trail connected the Overhill towns along the Upper Little Tennessee with the Kitawha towns in North Carolina via Tuckaleechee Cove, Cades Cove and Ekaneetlee Gap (near Gregory Bald).
- The War Trace ran from the Upper Cherokee area, through southeast Kentucky, along Mason's Creek or Mace's Creek, and present-day Viper, Kentucky, passing through the Overhill towns and reaching the Georgia Cherokee towns. It also had connections to the Warrior's Path and the Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, area, and the Cherokee villages of Sullen Possum and Wildcat.
History
Early Euro-American explorers in Southern Appalachia noted that the Cherokee were concentrated around three general regions. The "Lower Towns" were centered on the town of Keowee in the hills of South Carolina and northeastern Georgia. The "Middle Towns" were centered on Nequassee and Tassetchee amidst the Great Balsam Mountains and eastern Unicoi Mountains in western North Carolina. The Overhill Cherokee lived in settlements located between the Appalachian Mountains and the Tennessee Valley in what is now Tennessee. The Overhill capital, or "mother town," shifted between Great Tellico, Tanasi, and Chota.[1]
The Overhill settlements were established sometime between the late 16th century and the late 17th century, although scholars disagree on a more exact timeframe. The major towns were well-settled by the time the first Euro-American explorers arrived in the late 17th century. The Overhill Cherokee were recognized as speaking a dialect distinctive from that found in the Middle and Lower towns, although all the people identified as Cherokee.[1]
Early accounts
For most of the 17th century, the British colonies on the Atlantic coast dealt with the Cherokee via representatives of other tribes acting as middlemen. As the fur trade expanded in importance with rising demand in European markets, traders and trappers went to the Overhill settlements for direct contact with the Cherokee and other western tribes. In 1673, Virginia merchants sent agents James Needham and Gabriel Arthur on a trip west of the Appalachians, hoping to open a direct trade route. While Needham was killed on the return trip, Arthur stayed behind. He later claimed to have accompanied the natives (possibly the Cherokee) on raids of Spanish settlements in Florida.[12]
In 1725,
Alexander Cuming
Sir Alexander Cuming arrived in Charleston, South Carolina, in December 1729. Although he lacked official diplomatic credentials, Cuming managed to convince several Charlestonians that he was an agent of King George II of Great Britain on a mission to gain the loyalty of the Cherokee. Cuming set out for the Overhill town of Tanasi in March 1730, his stated goal being to gain the fabled "Crown of Tannassy."[14]
Cuming moved quickly along the Trading Path, interacting briefly with Lower and Middle chiefs. In just under a month, Cuming had crossed the Unicoi Mountains into the Overhill country, a dangerous place at the time because of the Cherokees' ongoing war with the Creeks.[15]
Years later, colonial trader Ludovick Grant, who lived in Great Tellico and briefly accompanied Cuming during his tour, described Cuming's techniques. In each town, Cuming arranged a meeting with local Cherokee leaders. He arrived fully armed at the meeting at the town council house, in defiance of custom. There he made a prepared speech saying that he was a private citizen wishing only to see their country, and that if any Indians wished to return to England with him, he would take them. He asked them to join his party in a toast to the health of King George II, and to kneel in allegiance. He told his guides that he would have set fire to the townhouse and killed the assembled Indians if they refused.[16]
During his stay in Great Tellico, Cuming was impressed by the display of its chief Moytoy. He described the encounter in his journal (referring to his party in third person):
They arrived at great Telliquo in the Afternoon, saw the petrifying Cave, a great many Enemies Scalps brought in and put upon Poles at the Warriors Doors, made a Friend of the great Moytoy, and Jacob the Conjurer.[17]
Cuming learned that Moytoy was trying to gain control of the entire Cherokee people, who were highly decentralized, with power associated with regional settlements. Cuming agreed to help Moytoy if the chief would help him get the Crown of Tanasi. On March 30, 1730, Cuming followed the Warriors' Path from Great Tellico to Tanasi, which he found "pleasantly situated" along the Little Tennessee. Cuming met with the Tanasi Warrior, whom he understood to be the de facto leader of the Overhill at the time. After gaining the Tanasi Warrior's allegiance, Cuming returned to Great Tellico.[18] He accompanied Moytoy back across the Unicoi Mountains to Nequassee, and helped the chief be crowned as "Emperor of the Cherokee."[19]
Cuming returned to England on June 5, 1730, accompanied by several Cherokee and carrying an opossum-hair headdress, which he referred to as the "Crown of Tannassy." Although he had planned to present the party and crown to King George II, a delegation from Charleston arrived claiming Cuming had defrauded them.[20] While Cuming's schemes led to his own downfall, his visit to the Overhill towns helped to solidify an alliance between the Cherokee and the English.[21]
Christian Priber
Around 1736,
Priber attempted to organize Cherokee society in accordance with early 18th-century European idealism. He promoted the idea that all things should be held in common, including wives and children. Claiming the English were fraudulent and greedy, he suggested moving the Cherokee capital to modern-day
Fort Loudoun
At the outbreak of the French and Indian War, the Cherokee aligned with the British. The Overhill towns agreed to provide military support, but asked that a fort be built to protect the area's women and children while the warriors were away. In 1756, the colonies dispatched Captain Raymond Demeré and engineer John DeBrahm to the area with several wagon loads of supplies for the construction of a fort along the Little Tennessee River. The fort, named after John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun, stood at the junction of the Little Tennessee and the Tellico rivers.[23] The Cherokee village of Tuskegee developed in its vicinity.
Shortly after the fort's construction, relations between the English and the Cherokee soured. Several Cherokee returning home from battle were killed by settlers, and an increase in horse thefts created tension in Virginia. After a contingent of Cherokee chiefs were detained at Fort Prince George in late 1759, the Cherokee, under Chief Standing Turkey, laid siege to Fort Loudoun. The fort's garrison held out until August 1760, when a lack of provisions forced them to surrender.[24]
Timberlake Expedition
The British colonies responded swiftly to the fall of Fort Loudoun. South Carolina sent Colonel
After a five-day journey down the Holston, French Broad, and Little Tennessee rivers, Timberlake arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley. There he was greeted by Ostenaco and witnessed a ceremonial return of a Cherokee war party.[6] After smoking a peace pipe with Ostenaco, Timberlake proceeded southward to Chota, where he was met by some 400 Cherokee. Timberlake smoked a peace pipe with several tribal leaders and recorded the layout and design of the town's large council-house.
The following day, Timberlake arrived in the town of Citico, where the residents greeted him with a long dance. After smoking a peace pipe with the town leader Cheulah, Timberlake proceeded southward to Chilhowee, where he gained similar assurances of peace. He returned via the trail to Long Island on the Holston.[26] Timberlake's journals, published in the 1760s, contain detailed descriptions of Cherokee council-houses, residences, canoes, and other facets of everyday Cherokee life; these were invaluable to historians.[27]
American Revolution
At the close of the Seven Years' War, Euro-American settlers began trickling into east Tennessee from the eastern colonies. In 1772, several pioneers negotiated a lease for Cherokee lands in northeast Tennessee and formed the Watauga Settlement. In spite of the agreement, tensions between the pioneers and the Cherokee rose steadily. By the outbreak of the American Revolution, the Cherokee were allied with the British against the rebellious American colonies, hoping to push the encroaching settlers out of their territory.[28]
In 1776, the Cherokee initiated a plan to drive the settlers out of the
In response to these attacks, several thousand militia members in two groups led by
In 1780, while the North Carolina militia from the Washington District, often referred to as the "overhill militia", were away at the Battle of Kings Mountain, the Cherokee launched sporadic raids against the settlers there. Upon his return, Colonel John Sevier, who had gained fame as a co-commander at Kings Mountain, was dispatched, along with several thousand militia, to the south on a punitive expedition to the Overhill towns. After defeating the Cherokee in a fierce battle at Boyd's Creek (in modern-day Sevier County), Sevier proceeded southward. He destroyed most of the remaining, lightly defended villages, including the chief city of Chota.[30]
Cherokee–American wars
After the Cherokee defeats at Heaton's Station and Fort Watauga in 1776, most Cherokee chiefs, including
Settlers called them the "Chickamauga Cherokee" after their location and to distinguish them from the greater Cherokee tribe. The Chickamauga (or "Lower Cherokee" as they were also sometimes called) proceeded to carry on an unconventional war against the encroaching Euro-American settlers, ambushing small patrols and attacking small settlements. After Oconastota's death in the early 1780s, Chief Old Tassel was recognized as the leader of the Overhill Cherokee. He sought more distance from the Chickamauga. After an expedition by Sevier destroyed the Chickamauga towns in 1782, Dragging Canoe moved the Chickamaugas southwest to modern-day Marion County, Tennessee, where he continued his struggle.[31]
Tellico Agency
After the assassination of Old Tassel in 1788, Chief Hanging Maw was recognized as the leader of the Overhill towns. With violence spiraling out of control, Hanging Maw petitioned territorial Governor William Blount for a fort to protect the peaceful Overhill villages from vengeful settlers. In 1794, Hanging Maw donated land at the junction of Nine Mile Creek and the Little Tennessee River to the U.S. government for the construction of the Tellico Blockhouse.[32]
Along with a small garrison of federal soldiers, the Tellico Blockhouse was the headquarters of the Tellico Agent, William Blount, the official liaison between the U.S. and the Cherokee. On November 8, 1794, Blount met Hanging Maw (representing the Overhill Cherokee) and John Watt (representing the Lower Cherokee) to sign a treaty ending the Cherokee–American wars. Over the next ten years, the U.S. made several other treaties with the Cherokee, persuading Cherokee leaders to cede large portions of land in East and Middle Tennessee, including the Overhill towns along the Little Tennessee, in an attempt to gain peace. With the cession of Overhill lands, the Cherokee Nation's center of power shifted south to New Echota in Georgia. Settlers migrating throughout the Southeast kept up pressure to gain Cherokee lands.[33]
Overhill sites today
In 1967, the
Further upstream, Chilhowee Dam was named after the now-submerged site of Chilhowee. Tennessee Reservoir Development Agency (TRDA) boat ramps have been named after the submerged former sites of Toqua and Tallassee. Abrams Creek, which traverses Cades Cove and empties into the Little Tennessee, is named after chief Abraham of Chilhowee.[36]
In the 20th century, Fort Loudoun was reconstructed by state teams, as well as a replica of a 17th-century village dwelling of Tuskegee; these are located within the
Prominent Overhill Cherokee figures
- Moytoy of Tellico (c. 1687–1760) – headman at Great Tellico at the time of Cuming's visit
- First Beloved Manof the Cherokee
- Ostenaco (c. 1700–1780) – head chief of Tomotley, at the time of Timberlake's visit
- Attakullakulla (c.1710–1777) – born in Chota; father of Dragging Canoe
- Oconostota (c. 1710–1783) – born and died in Chota
- Jacob the Conjurer (fl. ca. 1730) – in Great Tellico at the time of Cumming's visit
- Great Island Town
- Nancy Ward (c. 1738–1824) – born in Chota
- John Watts (1753–1802) – nephew of Old Tassel, leader of the Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee after Dragging Canoe died in 1792.
- Moytoy of Citico (1759–1761) - began the Anglo-Cherokee War
- Sequoyah (c. 1767–1843) – born in Tuskegee
- Savanukah (The Raven); participated in the 1776 offensive into the Washington District, North Carolina, served as headman of the Overhill Cherokee, 1780–1781.
- Abraham of Chilhowee (or Abram) (d. 1788) – led Cherokee assault against Fort Watauga in 1776
See also
References
- ^ a b c d Gerald Schroedl, "Overhill Cherokees." The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2002. Retrieved: 21 January 2008.
- ^ For a summary of the Overhill country's pre-Cherokee inhabitants, see: Jefferson Chapman, Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985/reprint Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1995).
- ^ Henry Timberlake, Memoirs, 1756–1765, Samuel Williams (ed.), (Marietta, Georgia: Continental Book Co., 1948), 118–119.
- ^ Evelyn Parrott Graham, "Cocke County." Newport (Newport, Tenn.: Clifton Club, 1970).
- ^ a b Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokee, 508.
- ^ a b Timberlake, Memoirs, 113.
- ^ Alberta Brewer and Carson Brewer, Valley So Wild (Knoxville: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1975), 14.
- ^ Gerald Schroedl, "Chota." Encyclopedia of Appalachia (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2006), 743.
- ^ Inez Burns, History of Blount County, Tennessee: From War Trail to Landing Strip, 1795–1955 (Nashville: Benson Print Co., 1957), 283.
- ^ William Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy (Winston-Salem: John F. Blair, 1977), 45.
- ^ Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokee, 512.
- ^ Ken Martin, "Initial Contacts With English Colonists." The History of the Cherokee, 1996. Retrieved: 17 October 2007.
- ^ Jerry Trivette, "As Long As the Mountains and Rivers Shall Last." Appalachian Summit, 2007. Quoting Samuel Williams, Early Travels In the Tennessee Country, 1540–1800 (Johnson City, Tenn.: The Watauga Press, 1928), 93. Retrieved: 17 October 2007.
- ^ Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy, 11–20.
- ^ Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy, 44–51.
- ^ Grant, Ludovick (January 1909). "Historical facts delivered by Ludovick Grant, Indian trader, to His Excellency the Governor of South Carolina". The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine. 10 (1).
- ^ Jerry Trivette, "As Long As the Mountains and Rivers Shall Last." Appalachian Summit, 2007. Quoting Samuel Williams, Early Travels In the Tennessee Country, 1540–1800 (Johnson City, Tenn.: The Watauga Press, 1928), 134–5. Retrieved: 17 October 2007.
- ^ Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy, 44–53.
- ^ Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy, 68.
- ^ Steele, The Cherokee Crown of Tannassy, 120–121.
- ^ Brewer and Brewer, Valley So Wild, 3–7.
- ^ Knox Mellon, "Christian Priber's Cherokee 'Kingdom of Paradise,'" Georgia Historical Quarterly 57, no. 3 (1973): 319–326.
- ^ Brewer and Brewer, Valley So Wild, 32–38.
- ^ Burns, History of Blount County, Tennessee, 4–7.
- ^ Burns, History of Blount County, Tennessee, 6–7.
- ^ Timberlake, Memoirs, 59–64.
- ^ For Timberlake's description of various facets of life in the Overhill towns, see: Timberlake, Memoirs, 57–64, 84–89.
- ^ Benjamin Nance, "Fort Watauga." The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2002. Retrieved: 21 January 2008.
- ^ a b Burns, History of Blount County, Tennessee, 11–12.
- ^ Burns, History of Blount County, Tennessee, 12.
- ^ J. G. M. Ramsey, The Annals of Tennessee (Johnson City, Tenn.: Overmountain Press, 1999), 172–174, 183–187.
- ^ Vicki Rozema, Footsteps of the Cherokees: A Guide to the Eastern Homelands of the Cherokee Nation (Winston-Salem: John F. Blair), 130.
- ^ Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, 79–85.
- ^ Gerald Schroedl, "Chota." The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2002. Retrieved: 17 October 2007.
- ^ Rozema, Footsteps of the Cherokees, 138–140.
- ^ Durwood Dunn, Cades Cove: The Life and Death of an Appalachian Community (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 260.
- ^ Simlot, Vinay (November 8, 2022). "After decades, Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians asks federal government to return land". WBIR News 10. Retrieved November 9, 2022.
- ^ Rozema, Footsteps of the Cherokees, 130–136, 158.
External links
- Eastern Band of the Cherokee – official site
- Frank H. McClung Museum
- Cherokee Heritage Trails
- Tennessee Overhill Experience Archived December 23, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- Tennessee Overhill Territory – hosted by Blue Ridge Highlander
- Appalachian Summit Archived August 6, 2002, at the Wayback Machine – a documentary history of the Cherokee, 1670–1900; numerous transcriptions of letters to and from important Overhill chiefs and early European explorers
- Sequoyah Birthplace Museum