Pacific Proving Grounds
Pacific Proving Grounds / Pacific Test Site | |
---|---|
primarily in the Nuclear testing range | |
Area | ~140,000 sq mi (360,000 km2) |
Site information | |
Operator | United States Department of Energy |
Status | Inactive |
Site history | |
In use | 1947–present (last nuclear test in 1962) |
Test information | |
Nuclear tests | 105 |
The Pacific Proving Grounds was the name given by the
On July 18, 1947, the United States secured an agreement with the
The United States conducted 105
Many of the islands which were part of the Pacific Proving Grounds are still contaminated from the nuclear fallout, and many of those who were living on the islands at the time of testing have suffered from an increased incidence of various health problems. Through the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990, at least $759 million has been paid to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing. Following the Castle Bravo accident, the U.S. paid $15.3 million to Japan.[4]
Scientists have calculated that the residents of the Marshall Islands during their lifetimes will be diagnosed with an added 1.6% (with 90% uncertainty range 0.4% to 3.4%) cancers attributable to fallout-related radiation exposures. The cancers are the consequence of exposure to ionizing radiation from weapons test fallout deposited during the testing period (1948–1958) and from residual radioactive sources during the subsequent 12 years (1959–1970).[5]
Strategic Trust Territory
On July 18, 1947, the United States convinced the United Nations to designate the islands of Micronesia as the Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only trust ever granted by the U.N.[1] The directive stated that the United States should "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall... protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources..."[6]
The United States Navy controlled the Trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the United States Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan.[7]
Despite the promise to "protect the inhabitants", from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll who had been relocated to Rongerik Atoll were starving for lack of food. A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote "The natives are actually and literally starving to death."[6] The islanders were later moved again to Kili Island, which is not surrounded by a reef. The island does not support the inhabitants' traditional way of life.
Radiation exposure
Because of the large amount of atmospheric testing, and especially the Castle Bravo accident of 1954, many of the islands which were part of the Pacific Proving Grounds are still contaminated by nuclear fallout.
Scientists calculated in 2010 that during the lifetimes of members of the
Compensation
Since 1956, the U.S. has paid at least $759 million to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing. Following the Castle Bravo accident on March 1, 1954, the U.S. paid $15.3 million to Japan.[4]
In June 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the
The United States also passed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act in 1990 to allow individuals to file claims for compensation in relation to testing as well as those employed at nuclear weapons facilities.
On March 5, 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people.[6] The Nuclear Claims Tribunal awarded the islanders a total of $563,315,500 after deducting past awards. However, the U.S. Congress has failed to fund the settlement. The only recourse is for the Bikini people to petition the U.S. Congress to fund the payment and fulfill this award. The United States Supreme Court turned down the islanders' appeal of the United States courts of appeals decision that refused to compel the government to fund their claim.
As of 2012[update], trusts remaining from the settlement produced about US$6 to $8 million annually in investment income, and the trusts paid out about US$15,000 per family each year in benefits.[11]
Testing chronology
Operation Crossroads (1946)
The first use of the Pacific Proving Grounds was during
Operation Sandstone (1948)
Three weapons were detonated on the Enewetak Atoll as part of Operation Sandstone in 1948.
Operation Greenhouse (1951)
Four weapons were detonated on the Enewetak Atoll as part of
Operation Ivy (1952)
Two weapons were detonated at the Enewetak Atoll as part of
Operation Castle (1954)
Six very large nuclear tests were conducted at the
Operation Redwing (1956)
Seventeen nuclear weapons were detonated on the Bikini and Enewetak Atolls as part of Operation Redwing in 1956. Many of them were designed to prove the feasibility of numerous thermonuclear weapon designs, with yields ranging from around 2 to 5 Mt.
Operation Hardtack I (1958)
Thirty-five weapons were detonated at the Bikini Atoll, Enewetak Atoll, and
Operation Dominic (1962)
Thirty-six weapons were detonated at sites in the Pacific Ocean in the vicinity of
Partial Test Ban Treaty
The signing of the
Geographical names
The Bikini and Enewetak Atolls are each a collection of islands. Various names have been assigned to the islands over time, and the confusion over the names (and their alternate transliterations) have been the source of much confusion, and in addition, over time islands appear, disappear, separate and join, and are excavated by bombs. Here are the islands listed in clockwise fashion starting with left side of the major inlet into the lagoon in each atoll. The names include the official Marshall Island names, the American military names used after occupation through the atomic testing period, and the Japanese names used while they occupied the islands during World War II, plus names gleaned from other sources.
Marshall Islander's name[15] | US Military name[15] | Japanese name[15] | Other found |
---|---|---|---|
Aerokoj[Notes 1] | |||
Aerokojlol | Peter | Airukiraru | Aerokoj |
Bikdrin | Roger | Bigiren | |
Lele | Sugar | Reere | |
Enemen | Tare | Eniman | |
Enidrik | Uncle | Enirik | |
Lukoj | Victor | Rukoji | |
Jelete | William | Chieerete | |
Adrikan | Yoke | Arrikan | |
Oroken | Zebra | Ourukaen | |
Bokaetoktok | Alpha | Bokoaetokutoka | |
Bokdrlul | Bravo | Bokororyuru | Bokdrolul |
Bokbata | |||
Bokonejein | |||
Nam | Charlie | Namu | |
Iroij | Dog | Yurochi | |
Odrik | Easy | Yorikku | |
Lomilik | Fox | Romurikku | |
Aomen | George | Aomeon | Aomoen |
Bikini | How | Bikini | |
Bakantauk | Item | Bokonfaaku | Bokonfuaaku, Bokantuak |
Lomelen | Jig | Yomyaran | Iomeman |
Enealo | King | Eniairo | |
Rojkere | Love | Rochikarai | Rokere |
Eonjebi | Mike | Ionchebi | |
Eneu | Nan | Enyu |
Marshall Islander's name[15] | US Military name[15] | Japanese name[15] | Other found |
---|---|---|---|
Ikuren | Glenn | Igurin | |
Mutt | Henry | Mui, Buganegan[16] | |
Boken | Irwin | Pokon | Bogan[16] |
Ribewon | James | Ribaion | Libiron[16] |
Kidrenin | Keith | Giriinien | Girinian, Kiorenen, Grinem[16] |
Biken | Leroy | Rigli | Rigili[16] |
Unibor | Mack | ||
Drekatimon | Oscar | ||
Noah | |||
Bokoluo | Alice | Bogallua[16] | |
Bokombako | Belle | Bogumbogo[16] | |
Kirunu | Clara | Ruchi | Kiruna[17] |
Louj | Daisy | Cochiti | |
Bocinwotme | Edna | Bokinwotme, San Idelfonso | |
Elugelab | Flora | Eluklab, Eybbivae[16] | |
Dridrilbwij | Gene | Teiteiripucci | Teiteir, Lidilbut[16] |
Bokaidrikdrik | Helen | Bogairikk, Bogeirik[16] | |
Boken | Irene | Bokon, Bogon[16] | |
Enjebi | Janet | Engebi | |
Mijikadrek | Kate | Mujinikaroku | MuzinBaarappu, Mujinkarikku[16] |
Kidrinen | Lucy | Kirinian | |
Taiwel | Percy | Billee[16] | |
Bokenelab | Mary | Bokonaarappu | Bokenelan[17] |
Elle | Nancy | Yeiri | |
Aej | Olive | Aitsu | |
Lujor | Pearl | Rujoru | Rujiyoru[16] |
Eleleron | Ruby | Ebeiru | Eberiru[16] |
Aomen | Sally | Aomon | |
Bijire | Tilda | Biljiri | |
Lojwa | Ursula | Rojga | Rojoa[16] |
Alembel | Vera | Aaraanbiru | Arambiru[16] |
Billae | Wilma | Piiraar | Piirai[16] |
Runit | Yvonne | ||
Runit Southern | Zona | ||
Boko | Sam | ||
Munjor | Tom | ||
Inedral | Uriah | ||
Van | |||
Jinedrol | Alvin | Chinieero | Jinedrol |
Ananij | Bruce | Aniyaanii | |
Jinimi | Clyde | Chinimi | |
Japtan | David | Anarij | |
Jedrol | Rex | Jieroru | Jeroru, Muti[16] |
Medren | Elmer | Parry | |
Bokandretok | Walt | ||
Eniwetok | Fred | Enewetak[17] |
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ One map shows Aerokoj separate from Aerokojlol.
References
- ^ a b Kattenburg, David (December 2012). "Stranded on Bikini". Green Planet Monitor. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
- ISBN 0-89838-900-3.
- ^ "The evacuation of Rongelap". Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2009.
- ^ a b "Welcome to the Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal". The Brookings Institution. 1998. Archived from the original on March 7, 2006. Retrieved May 2, 2016.
- ^ PMID 20622551.
- ^ a b c Niedenthal, Jack. "A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll". Retrieved August 7, 2013.
- ^ "Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands". University of Hawaii.
- ^ "U.S. Relations With Marshall Island". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
- ^ "Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal". Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved July 22, 2007.
- ^ a b "U.S. Reparations for Damages". Bikini Atoll. Retrieved August 12, 2013.
- ^ Gwynne, S.C. (October 5, 2012). "Paradise With an Asterisk". Outside Magazine. Retrieved August 9, 2013.
- ^ "Operation Ivy".
- ^ NIOSH Program Area: Office of Compensation Analysis and Support (OCAS): Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG). "The Pacific Proving Grounds included Bikini Atoll, Enewetak Atoll, Johnston Island (nuclear weapons testing activities only), and Christmas Island (U. S. nuclear weapons testing activities only)."
- ^ "Operation Dominic".
- ^ doi:10.2172/123221. Retrieved February 6, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "U. S. Naval Oceanographic Chart No. 6033, January, 1966". Pacific Science. 23: 266. July 1969.
- ^ a b c "Marshall Islands dose assessment and radioecology program - Enewetak". Retrieved February 6, 2014.