Pacific Salmon War

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The Pacific Salmon War was a period of heightened tensions between Canada and the United States over the

Pacific Salmon Treaty, which had been ratified in 1985, expired, and lasted until a new agreement was signed in 1999. Disagreements were high in 1994, when a transit fee was set on American fishing vessels using the Inside Passage and a ferry was blockaded by fishing boats in Friday Harbor, Washington
.

Tensions peaked in 1997, when Canadian fishers, pursuing a "Canada First" strategy, began catching as many salmon as they could. After aggressive tacks on both sides,

Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental and Test Ranges
(CFMETR) in Nanoose Bay. Alaskan ferry services to Prince Rupert were halted.

Disagreements were largely resolved by 1999, although court cases continued until a new agreement was signed on June 3, 2001.

Background

Seining salmon on the Columbia River
, 1914

canneries geared for export. Harvests increased annually until the 1910s. The abundance of the resource had precluded any disagreements between the Canadian and American governments until this point.[1]

However, from the 1920s, stocks began to decline, a result of

International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission was formally founded in 1937.[2]

By the 1970s, cooperation between the two governments in setting fishing quotas had faltered. In 1982, after 14 or 15 years of negotiations, a comprehensive treaty known as the

Pacific Salmon Treaty was signed and was fully ratified in 1985.[3][4][5] It limited catches of Alaska, Fraser, and Columbia salmon to pre-set quotas and committed the governments to improving the spawning capacities of the region's rivers.[2][6] The treaty had two main purposes: to "prevent overfishing and provide for optimum production" of salmon and to "provide for each Party to receive benefits equivalent to the production of salmon originating in its waters."[7] Though the treaty was generally successful at increasing fish populations, it failed to prevent large amounts of 'interceptions', or fish being caught disproportionately by one country.[8] In 1999, Karon de Zwager Brown calculated that the US had intercepted 35 million more salmon than Canada since 1985.[9] The disagreements were exacerbated by the fact that American salmon production was going down and Canadian stocks were increasing, resulting in a disproportionate number of American interceptions.[10]

In 1992 the treaty expired.[4] 1993 was the last year both countries agreed on fishing limits.[11] Regulations regarding how many fish could be caught ended in 1994.[12]

Conflict

In May 1994, negotiations over a new treaty collapsed.

Minister of Fisheries Oceans Brian Tobin as saying "There will be an aggressive fishing strategy, but no fish war," as Canadian fishers announced a fishing plan that would increase catches of salmon and restrict American fishing in Canadian waters.[13] The plan was deliberately aggressive, intending to "maximize disruption" according to Tobin.[15]

On August 15, a ferry was briefly blockaded by around 12 fishing boats in

Native American tribes in the region filed a lawsuit. The tribes, Washington state, Oregon, and British Columbia all supported lower Alaskan limits.[23] After the Turbot War between Canada and Spain, Tobin urged outside mediation.[20] In October an attempt at mediation, led by New Zealand diplomat Chris Beeby, began. Beeby determined that the Americans would have to dramatically decrease their catch in order to balance interests of both nations. The United States rejected his conclusions,[24] and 1996 Alaska was accused of placing limits on their fishers that were too high by British Columbia.[25] In 1996, general conservation plans were agreed upon and Canada claimed that the US took 5.3 million more salmon then it was "entitled to". Later that year, Alaska's limits were again called too high.[25][26] That year, American fishers 'intercepted' 5.3 million salmon.[9]

Discussions begun in February 1997 failed to resolve the disagreement.[27] Canadian fishers resolved to enter the fishing season by adopting a "Canada First" strategy, where they would attempt to catch large amounts of salmon before the salmon reached the Fraser River. As a result, they caught three million—or almost ten times the amount American fishers caught.[28] In June 1997, American fishers caught an estimated 315,000 of the 2.35 million sockeye salmon caught—almost three times their 120,000 average.[29] Canadians alleged that the Americans were targeting the valuable sockeye salmon, which the Americans denied. The "Canada First" policy was equated by the conservationist David Ellis to a "scorched earth" fishing policy, because it threatened salmon stocks.[28]

That same month, four American fishing boats were detained in a port in British Columbia

US Coast Guard ships.[12] Two fishermen of the Makah tribe were arrested and fined $4,000 each for illegal fishing by Canadian authorities. Alaskan governor Tony Knowles equated Canadian actions to gunboat diplomacy.[30] During a breakdown in treaty negotiations in early July, a group of around 100 American fishermen were allowed to fish as much as they wanted around Noyes Island for 56 hours. Canadian fishers argued that $50 million to $60 million of fish were taken during that time. Clark was reluctant to give the US Navy permission to operate submarines and canceled a US Canada economic conference.[29]

The US was accused of violating the terms of the Pacific Salmon Treaty on July 18, 1997.[31] On July 19, 1997, a flotilla consisting of between 100 and 200 Canadian fishing boats surrounded the Alaskan ferry MV Malaspina in the port of Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in retaliation for the Noyes Island incident.[12][29][32][33] 328 passengers were trapped[34] aboard the ship and the ship was not allowed to travel to Ketchikan, Alaska, its next stop. A court ordered the boats to move the following day, and they refused, requesting to speak to David Anderson, the Canadian Minister of Fisheries. Another ferry boat avoided docking in Prince Rupert and instead went to its next stop, Bellingham, Washington.[33] After three days the Malaspina was released[29] when Anderson ordered the blockade to be lifted. The United States Department of State complained, and the United States Senate condemned Canada for not acting to end the blockade quicker.[35] In response to the blockade, Alaskan ferry services to Prince Rupert were halted, depriving the region of many tourists—a major source of income. Alaska also sued the fishermen for C$2.8 million in lost revenue, and Canadian fishers counter-sued over revenue lost. The halt was extended through the middle of 1998 in September.[35][12][32][36]

Gary Locke

An American flag was burned in Prince Rupert.

CFMETR, Nanoose Bay, a Nanoose Bay torpedo testing site that was leased to the US Navy. The Canadian federal government halted Clark's efforts.[12][36][37]

Resolution

In September 1997 in

House Natural Resources Committee, saying that "During the last three years, cooperation with the United States on the conservation of chinook salmon has been a major problem," and complaining about Alaskan over-fishing.[39]

The federal governments quickly became further involved, with

US District Judge John C. Coughenour.[41] Before the 1999 fishing season, a deal between Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Canada, and various native tribes was signed with new restrictions, and the conflict was essentially ended.[42]

The dispute formally ended June 3, 2001, when the 1985 agreement was revised and signed.

governor of Washington State, said "Today we mark an end to the last several years of stalemate ... an end to the U.S.-Canada salmon war" on the day of signing the agreement. Some in Canada felt that David Anderson had not pushed enough for a better deal for Canadians.[32]

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Roos 1991, pp. 10–13, 14–17.
  2. ^ a b Miller, Kathleen A. "North American Pacific Salmon: A Case of Fragile Cooperation". United Nations Fisheries and Aquaculture Organisation. Archived from the original on March 14, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  3. ^ Harrison, John (2010). "Pacific Salmon Treaty". Columbia River History. Northwest Power and Conservation Council. Archived from the original on January 1, 2012. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  4. ^
    ISSN 0013-0613. Archived
    from the original on July 9, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  5. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 623.
  6. ISSN 0013-0133. Archived
    from the original on March 14, 2023. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  7. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 610.
  8. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, pp. 635–638.
  9. ^ a b de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 640.
  10. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 642.
  11. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 611.
  12. ^
    ISSN 0362-4331. Archived
    from the original on May 19, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  13. ^
    The Kitsap Sun. Archived
    from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  14. ^ "Salmon: Canada's plan could hurt state's runs". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  15. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 652.
  16. ^ "Friday Harbor: Fishermen block ferry". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  17. ^ "Salmon Fishing". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  18. ^ Springer 1997, p. 391.
  19. ^ a b de Zwager Brown 1999, pp. 652–653.
  20. ^ a b c Springer 1997, p. 392.
  21. ^ "Canada assails Alaska fishing, restricts own catch". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  22. Newspapers.com Open access icon
    .
  23. ^ "Alaska urges end to fishing ban". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  24. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 657.
  25. ^ a b "Salmon Squabble: Catch limits called too high". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on May 11, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  26. ^ "Governors talk salmon in treaty issues with Canada". The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on January 27, 2022. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  27. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 658.
  28. ^ a b de Zwager Brown 1999, pp. 659–660.
  29. ^ a b c d "Fish Wars Have Created a Real Stink Between the U.S. and Canada". Los Angeles Times. July 30, 1997. Archived from the original on August 18, 2022. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  30. ^ a b de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 661.
  31. ^ Springer 1997, p. 385.
  32. ^ a b c "Canada, U.S. Declare End to Salmon War". ABC News. Archived from the original on July 8, 2018. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  33. ^ a b "Alaskan tourists caught in Canada-U.S. 'salmon war'". Deseret News. July 21, 1997. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  34. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 663.
  35. ^ a b de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 664.
  36. ^
    ISSN 0013-0613. Archived
    from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2020.
  37. ^ Hunter, Justine (June 12, 2009). "The Salmon War". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020.
  38. ^ a b c de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 666.
  39. ^ "Salmon Wars: Canadian ambassador points finger at U.S." The Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  40. ^ de Zwager Brown 1999, p. 667.
  41. ^ "U.S. judge tosses out B.C.'s salmon war law suit". CBC. July 1, 2000. Archived from the original on November 1, 2021. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  42. ^ Matas, Robert; McKenna, Barrie (June 4, 1999). "Deal aims to end annual salmon wars". The Globe and Mail.

Bibliography

Further reading
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