Pacification of Manchukuo
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (July 2015) |
Pacification of Manchukuo | |||||||
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Part of the Interwar period | |||||||
Japanese troops in Manchuria, 1931 | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
China | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Ma Zhanshan Zhao Shangzhi Yang Jingyu † Zhou Baozhong Li Zhaolin Ding Chao Feng Zhanhai Tang Juwu † Wang Fengge Wang Delin Su Bingwen Lao Pie-fang Ji Hongchang Choe Hyon Kim Il Sung | |||||||
Strength | |||||||
300,000 |
Japanese: 84,000 Manchukuo: 111,000[1] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Unknown | Unknown |
The Pacification of Manchukuo was a
Japan seizes control
The earliest formation of large anti-Japanese partisan groups occurred in
The provincial government of Liaoning Province had fled west to
On 23 September 1931, Lieutenant General
On 24 September 1931, a provisional government was formed in
In Harbin, General Zhang Jinghui also called a conference on 27 September 1931 to discuss the organization of an "Emergency Committee of the Special District", formed to achieve the secession of Harbin from China. However he was not able to act as much of the area surrounding Harbin was still held by anti-Japanese militias under Generals Ding Chao, Li Du, Feng Zhanhai and others.
Meanwhile, in Mukden, the "North Eastern Administrative Committee," or
After the fall of Jinzhou, the independence movement made rapid progress in northern Manchuria, where Colonel Doihara was Chief of Special Services in Harbin. General Zhang Jinghui, upon learning of the defeat of Marshal Chang Hsueh-liang at Jinzhou, agreed to the request of the Self-Government Guiding Board at Mukden and declared the independence of Heilongjiang Province on 7 January 1932. After General Ma Zhanshan had been driven from Qiqihar by the Japanese in the Jiangqiao Campaign he had retreated northeastward with his beaten and depleted forces and had set up his capital at Hailun. There he attempted to continue to govern Heilongjiang province. Colonel Kenji Doihara began negotiations with General Ma from his Special Service Office at Harbin, hoping to get him to join the new state of Manchukuo Japan was organizing. Ma continued negotiating with Doihara, while he continued to support General Ding Chao.
Early resistance: militias, brotherhoods and bandits
The emergence of Chinese resistance to the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in the form of citizen militias, peasant brotherhoods and bandit gangs was facilitated by Japan's success in rapidly destroying Chang Hsueh-liang's government in the region. Most of the Kwantung Army's strength during November 1931 was concentrated against General Ma Zhanshan in north-central Heilongjiang, and in December and early January against Chang Hsueh-liang's remaining army in Jinzhou in southwestern Liaoning. Away from the Japanese garrisons in cities and along the railroads, resistance units mustered openly and relatively free from molestation in late 1931–early 1932.
Militias
The frontier status of Manchuria, with endemic banditry and activities by opposing warlords, led leading citizens and village authorities to form private militias for the protection of their property and landholdings even before the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. After the start of the Japanese occupation, these militias became partisan bands, often known as "plain-clothes" men from their lack of uniforms, and styled themselves with various names, such as the "Self-Protection Militia", "Anti-Japanese Militia" or "Chinese Volunteers". One of the first such forces to form, called the Courageous Citizens Militia, had been established by November 1931 near the estuary port of Jinzhou. These militias operated principally in southern Fengtian, which had half of Manchuria's population and the highest proportion of Han Chinese. Fengtian had come almost immediately under Japanese control, as most population centers and its capital of Mukden all lay along the tracks of the South Manchuria Railway in the S.M.R. Zone, which had been garrisoned by Kwantung Army troops since long before the conflict.
Peasant brotherhoods
"Peasant brotherhoods" were a traditional form of mutual protection by Chinese small-holders and tenant farmers. Waves of immigrants fleeing the wars of the
The Red Spear Society was strongest in the hinterlands of Fengtian and countryside around Harbin. The Big Swords Society predominated in southeastern Jilin and adjoining parts of Fengtian. In 1927, the Big Swords had spearheaded an uprising triggered by the collapse of the prevailing Feng-Piao paper currency. During the rebellion the Big Swords were respected by the peasants because they did not harm or plunder the common people, but resisted the officials of the warlord Zhang Zuolin.
After the Japanese invasion, the Big Swords Society disturbed the Jiandao in southeast Fengtian along the Korean border, and rose en masse in response to the declaration of Manchukuo on 9 March 1932. The Big Swords became the principal component of partisan resistance in this region, forming loose ties with the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies. The bandit leader Lao Pie-fang commanded several bands of Big Swords in western Fengtian. The Big Swords in southeast Jilin were allied with Wang Delin, and General Feng Zhanhai organized and trained a Big Sword Corps of 4,000 men.
The Red Spear Society groups were more widespread. Members formed important centers of resistance as the war spread out through the countryside. Red Spears frequently attacked the S.M.R. Zone from the Xinlitun and Dongfeng districts, close to Mukden and the Fushun coal mines. They were led by a young officer of the Fengtian Army, Tang Juwu. Red Spear Society units displayed extraordinary staying power in this area; almost two years after the Mukden Incident, a group of 1,000 Red Spear members stormed Dongfeng prefecture near Mukden on 3 June 1933, long after the large Volunteer Armies had been defeated.
However, both the Red Spear Society and the Big Sword Society were made up largely of uneducated and poorly trained peasants, and had a traditionalist, quasi-religious character. Members of the brotherhoods placed their faith in rustic magic and belief in the righteous character's Heavenly reward. Big Sword members claimed that their spells made them immune to bullets. Red Spear bands were in many cases led by
Bandits
Northeastern China was a poorly-governed frontier area at the turn of the 20th century and banditry was endemic. Some were hardened criminals who pillaged for a living; others were part-time bandits who robbed only to survive when crops failed and they could not make a living on the land. As the population of Manchuria increased through the 1920s, some newcomers became squatters, then wanderers, and then outlaws. Even in the settled Fengtian province, bandits known as Honghuzi ("red beards") were common along tune Beijing–Mukden railway and in the wooded southeast of the province along the Mukden-Dandong railway near Korea. Powerful bandit gangs operated within a day's march of such major cities as Mukden and Harbin. The term "shanlin" was often used to describe the bandits because they knew the local terrain very well. Most operated in a fairly small area and maintained the goodwill of local peasants. Government troops had great difficulty in suppressing them as would the Japanese and Manchukuo forces in later years.
There was also a tradition of nationalistic banditry, dating back to the
After December 1931, the Japanese Army began operations "for the clearance of bandits" into the Fengtian countryside beyond the South Manchuria Railway Zone in counties west of Mukden, largely due to repeated bandit attacks, robberies and kidnappings on the Dalian-Mukden trains. Fighting supported by aircraft reportedly broke up several of the bandit gangs. In consequence bandits now resented the Japanese invasion, and began retaliatory attacks against isolated Japanese communities along the Mukden-Dandong railway. Honghuzi chieftain Lao Pie-fang led several thousand followers to attack the southern portion of the S.M.R. mainline. The Japanese garrison of Niuzhuang (zh) was encircled and attacked by "1500 Chinese bandits under Lao Pie-fang," while other troops under his orders attacked in the Haicheng area. Japanese reinforcements quickly dispatched from Mukden forced Lao's retirement, but Lao Pie-fang re-emerged later as a Volunteer Army general, and was acclaimed as commander by both local Peasant Brotherhoods and Anti-Japanese militias.
Many bandits were admitted into the Volunteer Armies as the Japanese conquest advanced and the partisan resistance became an increasingly popular cause. Some professional bandits such as 'Old North Wind' Zhang Haitian, led their followers against Japan, but just as often continued to loot villages along the railway.
Formation of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies
Resistance in Harbin
When General
Hostilities did not commence in the Harbin area until the end of January 1932, at about the same time as the
General Ding Chao's beaten Jilin Self-Defence Army retired from Harbin to the northeast down the
Foundation of Manchukuo
With General Ding Chao defeated, Ma Zhanshan agreed to defect to the new Manchukuo Imperial Army on 14 February 1932 and retained his post as Governor of Heilongjiang Province in exchange for cooperating with the Japanese.
On 27 February 1932, General Ding Chao offered to cease hostilities, ending official Chinese resistance in Manchuria.
Within days Henry
Despite the end of official resistance with the defeat of General Ding Chao, all was not calm in Manchuria. In late February General
That the Japanese had suffered a military defeat at the hands of a motley collection of irregular forces was a considerable political embarrassment. Japan was anxious to present Manchukuo to the world as a peaceful nation, especially as a League of Nations delegation was now investigating the situation. When the news of the victories of Wang's Chinese People's National Salvation Army spread around eastern Jilin, hundreds of troops who had been reluctant members of the new Manchukuo Imperial Army defected to the NSA and estimates of its total strength in April rose from 4,500 to above 10,000 and, possibly nearer 15,000 organized in five brigades.
War of the Volunteer Armies and "Anti-bandit Operations" 1932–1933
The conflict begins
Following the establishment of Manchukuo, fires were set in the Japanese quarter of Mukden. General Honjo's train suffered an attack which was repulsed, and minor revolts began in the remoter parts of Manchuria.
With the end of winter in 1932, the Japanese launched expeditions from Harbin into the interior of Jilin province, striking northeast down the Sungari River and east along the
To the southwest another force under General
Small Japanese detachments sent from Changchun radioed for help, after suffering heavy casualties in the fighting. Japanese forces from the east at Dehui, tried to fight their way through to Nong'an with the support of bombers, but the defenders radio ceased broadcasting, Li's Anti-Japanese Army having captured the town. Finally the next day, the Japanese succeeded in driving Li's forces out of the town mainly as a result of airplane bombing, against which they had little defense.
The Revolt of Ma Zhanshan
Despite being appointed Minister of War in the Manchukuo government and provincial governor, Muslim General Ma Zhanshan was kept under very strict control by the Japanese military. He had to ask for approval from his Japanese advisor on all matters regarding the provincial administration. Dissatisfied with the situation, Ma raised and re-equipped his private army in secret using Japanese money and weapons. As the Governor of Heilongjiang, he used his authority to secretly transport weapons and ammunition out of the arsenals and evacuated the wives and families of his troops to safety. He then led his troops out of Qiqihar on 1 April, stating that he was going on a military inspection tour.
At
After sending some troops to aid General Ding Chao in the lower
At the same time northwest of Harbin, irregular war began to flare up in the countryside of Heilongjiang province. Manchukuo troops mutinied, briefly holding the transportation hubs along the Qiqihar-Keshan and Harbin-Hailun railways, or departing to join the forces of General Ma. Mounted bandits appeared by the hundreds to loot towns on the Chinese Eastern Railway mainline west of Harbin. Other partisans rose up in the Taonan region, disrupting service on the Taonan-Qiqihar railway.
To restore control, the Japanese Army launched the Ma Chan-shan Subjugation campaign from April through July 1932. The Japanese struck northwards up the Harbin-Hailun and Qiqihar-Keshan railways, driving back General Ma's forces, and setting out from the railheads in powerful pincer movements to encircle groups of Ma's troops. General Ma reported on 8 June that he had decided to adopt guerrilla warfare tactics, retaining only one detachment of 1,000 soldiers as his personal command as a regular force. All other units were dispersed as small groups of partisans, roving countryside on horseback. By July, General Ma Zhanshan's troops were seriously depleted in the resulting battles, and only small numbers of men were able to break through the tight Japanese encirclement.
General Ma Zhanshan commanded 3,500 guerilla fighters against the Japanese, conducting attacks such as a raid on the Manchukuo treasury, attacking Changchun, the capital, and hijacking from an airfield six Japanese planes.[2]
General Ma caused so much trouble to the Japanese, that when his equipment and horse were captured, the Japanese presented them to the Emperor in Tokyo, assuming that he was dead. They were enraged to discover that he had survived and escaped.[3]
After General Ma escaped, his men kept up the fight, terrorizing the Japanese invaders. They seized 350 Japanese and Korean hostages and held them for weeks and kidnapped foreigners such as a British General's son and an American executive's wife.[4]
Revolts of the Volunteer Armies south of Harbin
In late April, the Chinese Eastern Railway was cut 65 miles (105 km) south of Harbin, by an estimated 3,000 Chinese soldiers under General Li Hai-ching. Li's troops ripped up the railway tracks, tore down telegraph wires, and captured a train from Harbin. They looted the train and dispersed before Japanese troops arrived on the scene.
In eastern Manchukuo, Wang Delin's troops set three minor railway stations afire and gutted the city of Suifenhe near the Russian border. Drawing more troops from the seemingly quiet southern Fengtian province, the Japanese launched the Li Hai-ching Subjugation Operation in May 1932. A mixed force of Japanese and Manchukuo troops attacked Li Hai-ching's guerrillas in southern Heilongjiang province from three directions, rapidly dispersing them and securing control of the region.
However, on 21 April 1932, with Japanese forces concentrated in the north, Tang Juwu in eastern Liaoning judged that the time was ripe for his army to go on the offensive. Tang Juwu started the revolt in Huanren and then captured Xinbin and Kuandian. Tang's army, numbering 20,000 men surrounded the Japanese Tonghua garrison. In reaction the Manchukuo police and detachments of the Manchukuo Army attempted to relieve the siege in the First Dongbiandao Clearance. On 8 May he captured Liuhe and took Tonghua soon after. However his force continued as a threat in the region to the east of Mukden and communications with Korea. Based in the Dongbiandao area, his army fought with both the Japanese Kwantung Army stationed in Mukden and the Manchukuo Fengtian Army. Although all major cities had been lost, the volunteer armies gained a new lease of life during the summer of 1932 and reached their greatest strength.
Also in May,
On 20 June, Feng Zhanhai captured Yushu, Jilin, but after a fierce Japanese counterattack, he was forced to retreat. He then arrived at Wuchang, Heilongjiang, on 4 July and the Japanese defenders fled. On 13 July, Feng Zhanhai captured Shulan.[5]
Massive floods along the
Defeat of the Volunteer Armies
Mongolian bandit forces were able to attack the Ssutao (
On 2 September 1932 during the
Su Bingwen's revolt
General Su Bingwen the "Barga District" at the extreme west of Heilongjiang on the Soviet frontier, had kept his isolated command beyond the Greater Khingan mountains, free any of the fighting or any Japanese troops, doing nothing in support of either Manchukuo or Ma Zhanshan. As a consequence the farmers settled along the Chinese Eastern Railway mainline west of Qiqihar had remained undisturbed by warfare and were able to get in their harvests.
On 27 September 1932 when the Japanese turned their attention south to restore the security of the vital facilities in the southern Manchukuo which were endangered by the activities of the Volunteer Armies, General Su Bingwen's soldiers staged a mutiny, seizing hundreds of Japanese civilians and isolated military personnel as hostages. The mutineers, calling themselves the
Ma Zhanshan had emerged onto the plains again from his shelter in the
However food shortages were particularly acute in Heilongjiang after the devastation wrought by the August flooding. The Heilongjiang troops and Ma's Army were being supplied with provisions commandeered unwillingly from local farmers, and soon there was nothing left to seize.
In mid-October, Ma's forces captured
For eight days the Japanese garrison commanded by a Captain Hayashi at Taian on the Qiqihar-Koshen railway was encircled by some 4,000 Volunteers, until it succeeded in repulsing them on 28 October following severe fighting, in which twenty eight Japanese (including Captain Hayashi) were killed or wounded. A cavalry detachment, the Kawase Detachment of 59 horsemen sent out toward Taian, disappeared on the frosted prairie. On 8 November, the sole survivor, a Sergeant Iwakami, arrived in Qiqihar to tell how the detachment had been annihilated outside Taian.
In reaction, the Japanese organized the
Final Operations in eastern Manchukuo
Diverted from their preparations for invading
On 10 September 1932, at
Meanwhile, in October to the west, a Manchukuo and Japanese force in the Li Hai-ching Subjugation, confronted the 3,000 man Li Hai-ching guerrilla force that had returned to attack Manchukuo and Japanese forces in south Heilongjiang province and forced their retreat into Jehol province.
Finally the Japanese took the initiative in the east. In mid-October, the Japanese estimated Tang Juwu's forces in the fourteen counties of south and eastern Fengtian at about 30,000 men. On 11 October 1932, the Japanese counterattacked in the
Following that operation up from October to November 1932 in the
From 6 November 20 to November, 1932, the Manchukuo Army launched the Ki Feng - Lung District Subjugation Operation clearing the Ki Feng-lung district of guerrillas with 5,000 Manchukuo soldiers consisting of a battalion of the Manchukuo Imperial Guards and the 2nd Cavalry Regiment of the Fengtian Army and a Cavalry detachment of the Jilin Army.
The Third Dongbiandao Subjugation operation, from 22 November to 5 December 1932, was launched to finally clear the remnants of Tang Juwu's guerrilla forces that had regrouped after the Second Dongbiandao Subjugation campaign. The Manchukuo force was made up of a unit of Manchukuo Imperial Guards as well as locally raised militia forces from the Yalu, Central and Shenghai districts totaling 5,000 men. The operation was a success and led to the capture of 1,800 "bandits", some of whom were later recruited into the Manchukuo Army.
On 24 December 1932, the
Aftermath
This was not the end of the Volunteer Armies. Some fought on as small guerrilla units, frequently called "shanlin". The bandit experiences of some of the commanders stood them in good stead for they were adept at surviving in the Manchurian winters and adapted to guerrilla warfare and they continued to harass the Japanese and Manchukuo forces for many years.
The Japanese were forced to tie up considerable military forces and assets to continuously sweep the region with company-sized patrols for many months. Occasionally they organized larger operations. After a resurgence of activity the Japanese were forced to organize the large-scale Jilin Province Subjugation operation in October and November 1933. It involved 35,000 men of the Manchukuo Army in an attempt to clear the province of Jilin entirely of guerrillas. The Manchukuo force included the whole of the Jilin Army as well as the elements of the Heilongjiang Army, Xing'an Army and the Xinjin Independent Cavalry Detachment. The operation was deemed a success and led to the capture and death of a number of anti-Japanese commanders.
Of the forces that fled Manchukuo, Feng Zhanhai and his men went on to serve against the Japanese
Of the Volunteer guerrilla leaders remaining in Manchukuo, Wang Fengge was captured in 1937 and executed, along with his wife and child. Wu Yicheng fought on with a small band of followers until 1937. Although Kong Xianrong, Wang Delin's deputy, gave up the struggle, his wife and another of Wang Delin's subordinates, Yao Zhenshan, led a small band which fought on until the spring of 1941 when it was annihilated.
Communists and the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army 1934-1942
Early Conflict with the Anti Japanese Armies
After the
When the first Volunteer Armies were organized, the Communist Party was initially completely hostile, mistrusting their motives and leadership. They also feared that the Volunteer Armies would give the Japanese a pretext for attacking the Soviet Union. The Communist Party in northeast China even issued an appeal for the volunteers to kill their officers and join the Communists in a social revolution.
Despite Party disapproval, some Communist Party members joined or rendered assistance to the various Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies, and some rose to senior positions within the volunteer forces. They were particularly influential in Wang Delin's Chinese People's National Salvation Army (NSA), where Li Yanlu and Zhou Baozhong became high-ranking officers. At first the Party severely criticized their conduct.
However, the Communists eventually had to face the fact that their current propaganda made them almost irrelevant to the anti-Japanese cause. The actions of Party members who joined or aided the various Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies eventually persuaded the
In 1934, after the defeat of the large Volunteer Armies, there were still various resistance forces with an estimated 50,000 men still in the field. All the Communist Party units were reorganized into the single Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, with Zhao Shangzhi as Commander-in-chief. The army was open to all who wanted to resist the Japanese and as it proclaimed its willingness to ally with all other anti-Japanese forces, this army won over some of the shanlin bands, including former NSA units.
United Front
In 1935, when the Party officially changed policy, and began creating a united front, the army welcomed and absorbed most of the remaining anti-Japanese forces in Manchuria and some Korean resistance fighters including Kim Il Sung. The number of insurgents in 1935 stood at about 40,000 men. The army was organized into Yang Jingyu's 1st Route Army (Fengtian Province), Zhou Baozhong's 2nd Route Army (Jilin Province), and Li Zhaolin's 3rd Route Army (Heilongjiang Province). The army's strategy was to form pockets of resistance in occupied areas, to harass the Japanese troops and undermine their attempts at administration, and when the Second Sino-Japanese War began in earnest in 1937, to make attacks to keep as many Japanese troops as possible from being sent into China. It conducted a protracted campaign which threatened the stability of the Manchukuo regime, especially during 1936 and 1937.
The recently reformed Manchukuo Imperial Army replied with a major campaign with 16,000 men from October 1936 to March 1937, against the 1st Route Army in the Dongbiandao region. This was the first time it operated against the guerrillas without the support of Japanese troops. Despite heavy casualties the Manchukuo Army managed to kill over two thousand guerrillas including some of their leaders. Thus, the number of insurgents declined to 30,000 in 1936; and 20,000 in 1937.
An even larger and longer campaign from November 1937 to March 1939, was waged by 24,000 Manchukuo troops against the 2nd Route Army in the area between the
As of September 1938, the number of insurgents had dwindled to an estimated 10,000 combatants as a result of years of fighting and privation. The Kwantung Army then brought reinforcements with a plan to mop up the remaining anti-Japanese forces in Fengtian. This operation gradually produced a critical lack of supplies, and from January to mid-February 1940 Yang Jingyu led the struggle until he died on 23 February 1940, trying to break out of the encirclement when an officer betrayed his detachment.
With its strongest armies dispersed or destroyed and its base areas pacified, the remnant resistance fighters, including Kim Il Sung, were gradually forced to retreat into Siberia between 1940 and 1942. In November 1941, Li Zhaolin entered the Soviet Union. By July 1942 Zhou Baozhong followed. Finally on 12 February 1942, Zhao Shangzhi was captured by Japanese military police after being attacked by one of their agents, and later died.
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Jowett (2004), p. 8
- ISBN 0-7867-1484-0. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
- ISBN 978-1-4067-1532-3. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ISBN 0-7867-1484-0. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
- ^ "冯占海点燃舒兰抗日烽火_吉林市". www.sohu.com. Retrieved 2021-02-27.
- ^ Pingdingshan Massacre Memorial Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ 道客巴巴. "东北抗日义勇军将领王德林". www.doc88.com. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
Sources
- Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China.
- Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England.
- 中国抗日战争正面战场作战记 (China's Anti-Japanese War Combat Operations)
- Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang
- Jiangsu People's Publishing House
- Date published : 2005-7-1
- ISBN 7-214-03034-9
- Online in Chinese: https://web.archive.org/web/20070528050259/http://www.wehoo.net/book/wlwh/a30012/A0170.htm%7B%7BDead link Fixed|date=August 2017}}
- 第二部分:从“九一八”事变到西安事变 辽宁义勇军的抗日斗争 1
- Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident The Liaoning volunteers' opposition to Japan struggles
- 第二部分:从“九一八”事变到西安事变吉林义勇军的抗日斗争 1
- Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident The Jilin volunteers' opposition to Japan struggles
- 第二部分:从“九一八”事变到西安事变 黑龙江义勇军的抗日斗争 1
- Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident Heilongjiang volunteers' opposition to Japan struggle
- 第二部分:从“九一八”事变到西安事变东北义勇军抗日斗争简析 1
- Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident Northeast Righteous and Brave Army opposition to Japan struggles analysis
- Coogan, Anthony, The volunteer armies of Northeast China, History Today; July 1993, Vol. 43 Issue 7, pp.36-41
- "The Magistrate", Notes On A Guerrilla Campaign, from http://www.democraticunderground.com, 06/28/2003, accessed December 20, 2006
External links
- IMTFE Judgement, Invasion & Occupation of Manchuria
- Jan. 25, 1932 issue of TIME magazine, Explanations
- Modern Manchuria-Political (Inset-Mukden) 现代满洲-政治(放大图-沈阳) Map of Manchuria c. 1935 http://map.huhai.net/72.jpg from http://map.huhai.net on June 27, 2007 at the Wayback Machine (archived June 27, 2007)
- Modern Manchuria and Mongolia-Economic (Inset-Foreign Trade of Manchuria for 1930) 现代满洲和蒙古经济(放大图-1930年对外贸易) Geography Map of Manchuria in the 1930s, http://map.huhai.net/73.jpg from http://map.huhai.net on July 27, 2007 at the Wayback Machine (archived June 28, 2007)
- Noam Chomsky, On the Backgrounds of the Pacific War, Article 1967.
- Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection Manchuria 1:250,000, Series L542, U.S. Army Map Service, 1950- Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the Second World War.