Pala Empire
Pāla Empire | |||||||||||||||||
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750 CE[1]–1161 CE[2] | |||||||||||||||||
Capital | List
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Common languages | Gopala (first) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1139–1161 | Madanapala (last) | ||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Post-classical | ||||||||||||||||
• Established | 750 CE[1] | ||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1161 CE[2] | ||||||||||||||||
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Today part of |
The Pāla Empire (r. 750–1161 CE)
The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast
The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The
History
Origins
There is no clear evidence exists for their origin or early history of the Palas. Historians rely on indirect evidence to understand their reign, leading to controversies about their ancestry.
André Wink mentions that the founder, Gopala was elected, and "definitely not of royal blood but probably of a line of brahmans which transformed itself into kshatriyas".[22] Similarly, the 11th century Persian scholar Al-Biruni mentions the rulers of Pala dynasty to be of brahman origin.[24]
Establishment
After the fall of
Gopala's ascension was a significant political event as the several independent chiefs recognised his political authority without any struggle.[16] Gopala ascended the throne in around 750 CE, or a few years later. During his reign, he consolidated the empire by bringing the whole of Bengal including Gaur, Varendra and Banga and Southern Bengal under his control . He also extended his rule over parts of Magadha. By bringing Gaur, Varendra, Banga and parts of Magadha under a single authority, he bought peace and stability in the region after the century of anarchy in the region. According to RC Majumdar, Gopala ruled till 770 CE, leaving a strong consolidated empire when he died.
Imperial expansion and consolidation
Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son
Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala Emperor.
His oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so Mahendrapala, his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas.[32] He passed his empire intact to his younger brother Shurapala I, who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate.[33] What happened in Gopala II's rule, the son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne.
First period of decline
Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, Vigrahapala I abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, Mihira Bhoja defeated the Palas.[34]: 20 Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles.[16]
Naryanapala's son
Revival under Mahipala I
Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 978 CE.H also recovered his capital, Gauda, which had been lost to he Kambojas. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day
Second period of decline
Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar
The successor and older son of Vighrahapala III by his wife Yauvanashri, Mahipala II's reign is well-documented by
Revival under Ramapala
After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala empire with some success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check, but lost Mithila to a Karnat chief named Nanyadeva. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a matrimonial alliance, by marrying off his cousin Kumaradevi to the king.[16][2]
Final decline
Ramapala was the final strong Pala Emperor, although his son Kumarapala managed to keep most of his territories. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva also won a naval war in southern Bengal for his liege. but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom.[16] Kumarapala's son, Gopala IV ascended the throne as a child, and according to the Rajibpur copperplate inscription, his uncle Madanpala acted as his regent.[38] Gopala IV either died in battle or was murdered by Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and the Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. Two rulers, named Govindapala and Palapala ruled over the Gaya district from around 1162 CE to 1200 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about their relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the Sena dynasty.[2] The descendants of the Palas, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the Kayastha caste.[39][40]
Geography
The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a vast region in North India at one time, they could not retain it for long due to constant hostility from the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less powerful kings.[41]
No records are available about the exact boundaries of original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the
The epigraphic records credit Devapala with extensive conquests in hyperbolic language. The Badal pillar inscription of his successor Narayana Pala states that by the wise counsel and policy of his Brahmin minister Darbhapani, Devapala became the suzerain monarch or Chakravarti of the whole tract of Northern India bounded by the Vindhyas and the Himalayas. It also states that his empire extended up to the two oceans (presumably the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal). It also claims that Devpala defeated Utkala (present-day Northern Odisha), the Hunas, the Kambojas, the Dravidas, the Kamarupa (present-day Assam), and the Gurjaras:[16]
- The Gurjara adversary may have been Mihira Bhoja, who was defeated by Devapala.
- The identity of the Huna king is uncertain.
- The identity of the Kamboja prince is also uncertain. While an ancient country with the name Kamboja was located in what is now Afghanistan, there is no evidence that Devapala's empire extended that far. Kamboja, in this inscription, could refer to the Kamboja tribe that had entered North India (see Kamboja Pala dynasty).
- The Dravida king is usually identified with the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha. Some scholars believe that the Dravida king could have been the Pandya ruler Shri Mara Shri Vallabha, since "Dravida" usually refers to the territory south of the Krishna river. According to this theory, Devapala could have been helped in his southern expedition by the Chandela king Vijaya. In any case, Devapala's gains in the south, if any, were temporary.
Devapala is also believed to have led an army up to the Indus river in Punjab.[16]
His sons and grandson probably managed to keep the core area of the empire intact. However, the empire started disintegrating shortly after. Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. It was thought he also briefly lost control over Magadha and north Bengal, although it has now been debunked. Gopala III suffered serious reverses at the hands of the Chandra king, and ruled only from a part of northern Bengal. The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal, Bihar and up to Varansi. His successors lost east and south Bengal again. The last strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa.[16] By the time of Madanapala's death, the Pala kingdom was confined to parts of central and east Bihar along with northern Bengal.[16]
Administration
The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt imperial titles like Parameshwara, Paramvattaraka, Maharajadhiraja. Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years.
- Garga
- Darvapani (or Darbhapani)
- Someshwar
- Kedarmisra
- Bhatta Guravmisra
Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.[46]
The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts:[47]
- Raja
- Rajanyaka
- Ranaka (possibly subordinate chiefs)
- Samanta and Mahasamanta (Vassal kings)
- Mahasandhi-vigrahika (Foreign minister)
- Duta (Head Ambassador)
- Rajasthaniya (Deputy)
- Aggaraksa (Chief guard)
- Sasthadhikrta (Tax collector)
- Chauroddharanika (Police tax)
- Shaulkaka (Trade tax)
- Dashaparadhika (Collector of penalties)
- Tarika (Toll collector for river crossings)
- Mahaksapatalika (Accountant)
- Jyesthakayastha (Dealing documents)
- Ksetrapa (Head of land use division) and Pramatr (Head of land measurements)
- Mahadandanayaka or Dharmadhikara (Chief justice)
- Mahapratihara
- Dandika
- Dandapashika
- Dandashakti (Police forces)
- Khola (Secret service).
- Agricultural posts like Gavadhakshya (Head of dairy farms)
- Chhagadhyakshya (Head of goat farms)
- Meshadyakshya (Head of sheep farms)
- Mahishadyakshya (Head of Buffalo farms) and many other like Vogpati
- Vishayapati
- Shashtadhikruta
- Dauhshashadhanika
- Nakadhyakshya
Culture
Religion
Buddhism
The Palas were patrons of
The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as the Vikramashila and the
, Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan.As the rulers of
Shaivism
The Palas continued to patronise
The Palas supported the
Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronised a Shaivite monastery. A 1026 CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva, Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi.[11]
Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and records his grant of a village to Pashupatas.[11] Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister.[52] Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as Bhairava), plus temples dedicated to the Nine Durgas, the Mother Goddess, Vishnu, and Lakshmi. Despite this, it is unlikely that Nayapala had rejected Buddhist teachings, since Taranatha states that he had a Buddhist preceptor.[11]
Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a brahmana named Vateshvara-svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata.[53]
Literature
The Palas patronised several
The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include
- Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika, Bhanumati, Shabda Chandrika and Dravya Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Datta
- Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
- Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
- Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
- Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana
Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century) is an important source of Pala history.
A form of the proto-Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule.[16]
Art and architecture
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors.[54] It is influenced by the Gupta art.[55]
The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the
Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.[57]
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A basalt statue ofKārttikeya
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Carved shankhas
As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The
-
Somapura Mahavihara, a World Heritage Site, was built by Dharmapala
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Central shrine decor at Somapura
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Ruins of Vikramashila
List of Pala rulers
Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-known calendar era. Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine.[59] Based on their different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, different historians estimate the Pala chronology as follows:[60]
RC Majumdar (1971)[61]
|
AM Chowdhury (1967)[62] | BP Sinha (1977)[63][failed verification] | DC Sircar (1975–76)[64] | D. K. Ganguly (1994)[59] | |
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Gopala I
|
750–770 | 756–781 | 755–783 | 750–775 | 750–774 |
Dharmapala
|
770–810 | 781–821 | 783–820 | 775–812 | 774–806 |
Devapala | 810–c. 850 | 821–861 | 820–860 | 812–850 | 806–845 |
Mahendrapala | NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively established through a copper-plate charter discovered later.) | 845–860 | |||
Shurapala I | Deemed to be alternate name of Vigrahapala I | 850–858 | 860–872 | ||
Gopala II | NA (copper-plate charter discovered in 1995. Text of inscription published in 2009.) | ||||
Vigrahapala I
|
850–853 | 861–866 | 860–865 | 858–60 | 872–873 |
Narayanapala
|
854–908 | 866–920 | 865–920 | 860–917 | 873–927 |
Rajyapala | 908–940 | 920–952 | 920–952 | 917–952 | 927–959 |
Gopala III | 940–957 | 952–969 | 952–967 | 952–972 | 959–976 |
Vigrahapala II | 960–c. 986 | 969–995 | 967–980 | 972–977 | 976–977 |
Mahipala I | 988–c. 1036 | 995–1043 | 980–1035 | 977–1027 | 977–1027 |
Nayapala
|
1038–1053 | 1043–1058 | 1035–1050 | 1027–1043 | 1027–1043 |
Vigrahapala III | 1054–1072 | 1058–1075 | 1050–1076 | 1043–1070 | 1043–1070 |
Mahipala II | 1072–1075 | 1075–1080 | 1076–1078/9 | 1070–1071 | 1070–1071 |
Shurapala II | 1075–1077 | 1080–1082 | 1071–1072 | 1071–1072 | |
Ramapala | 1077–1130 | 1082–1124 | 1078/9–1132 | 1072–1126 | 1072–1126 |
Kumarapala | 1130–1140 | 1124–1129 | 1132–1136 | 1126–1128 | 1126–1128 |
Gopala IV | 1140–1144 | 1129–1143 | 1136–1144 | 1128–1143 | 1128–1143 |
Madanapala | 1144–1162 | 1143–1162 | 1144–1161/62 | 1143–1161 | 1143–1161 |
Govindapala | 1158–1162 | NA | 1162–1176 or 1158–1162 | 1161–1165 | 1161–1165 |
Palapala | NA | NA | NA | 1165–1199 | 1165–1200 |
Family tree
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Note:[60]
- Earlier historians believed that VigrahapalaI and Shurapala I were the two names of the same person. Now, it is known that these two were cousins; they either ruled simultaneously (perhaps over different territories) or in rapid succession.
- AM Chowdhury rejects Govindapala and his successor Palapala as the members of the imperial Pala dynasty.
- According to BP Sinha, the Gaya inscription can be read as either the "14th year of Govindapala's reign" or "14th year after Govindapala's reign". Thus, two sets of dates are possible.
- D.K. Ganguly mentions another ruler named Indradumnyapala, who is solely known from local tradition. There is no source of his existence yet.[65]
- A king, Bhimapala also finds a mention in the Sabdapradipa. Rajat Sanyal argues that if Govindapala and Palapala are indeed accepted as Pala kings, Bhimapala also should be, provided that he was chronologically close to Ramapala according to the wording of the text. However, both need more historical evidence.[33]
- A king named Gomindrapala finds mention in a manuscript, dated his fourth regnal year. R.C. Majumdar identifies him with Govindapala, while S.K. Saraswati suggests he is a later Pala king.[65]
Military
The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the Mahasenapati (commander-in-chief). The Palas recruited mercenary soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including Malava, Khasa, Huna, Kulika, Mithila, Kanrata, Lata, Odra and Manahali. According to the contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had the finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab merchant Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that the Pala army employed 10,000–15,000 men for fuelling and washing clothes. He further claims that during the battles, the Pala king would lead 50,000 war elephants. Sulaiman's accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; Ibn Khaldun mentions the number of elephants as 5,000.[66]
Since Bengal did not have a good native breed of horses, the Palas imported their cavalry horses from the foreigners, including the Kambojas. They also had a navy, used for both mercantile and defence purposes.[67]
See also
History of South Asia | |
---|---|
(330–323 BC) | |
Maurya Empire | (321–184 BC) |
Seleucid India | (312–303 BC) |
Sangam period | (c. 600 BC – c. 300 AD) |
Pandya Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1345) |
Chera Kingdom | (c. 300 BC – AD 1102) |
Chola Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1279) |
Pallava Empire | (c. 250 AD – AD 800) |
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire | (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500) |
Parthian Empire | (247 BC – AD 224) |