Paleoart
Paleoart (also spelled palaeoart, paleo-art, or paleo art) is any original artistic work that attempts to depict prehistoric life according to scientific evidence.[1] Works of paleoart may be representations of fossil remains or imagined depictions of the living creatures and their ecosystems. While paleoart is typically defined as being scientifically informed, it is often the basis of depictions of prehistoric animals in popular culture, which in turn influences public perception of and fuels interest in these animals.[2] The word paleoart is also used in an informal sense, as a name for prehistoric art, most often cave paintings.[3]
The term "paleoart"–which is a
Paleoart emerged as a distinct genre of art with unambiguous scientific basis around the beginning of the 19th century, dovetailing with the emergence of paleontology as a distinct scientific discipline. These early paleoartists restored fossil material, musculature, life appearance, and habitat of prehistoric animals based on the limited scientific understanding of the day. Paintings and sculptures from the mid-1800s were integral in bringing paleontology to the interest of the general public, such as the landmark Crystal Palace Dinosaur sculptures displayed in London. Paleoart developed in scope and accuracy alongside paleontology, with "classic" paleoart coming on the heels of rapid increase in dinosaur discoveries resulting from the opening of the American frontier in the nineteenth century. Paleoartist Charles R. Knight, the first to depict dinosaurs as active animals, dominated the paleoart landscape through the early 1900s.
The modern era of paleoart was brought first by the "Dinosaur Renaissance", a minor scientific revolution beginning in the early 1970s in which dinosaurs came to be understood as active, alert creatures that may have been
Definitions
A chief driver in the inception of paleoart as a distinct form of scientific illustration was the desire of both the public and of paleontologists to visualize the prehistory that fossils represented.[7] Mark Hallett, who coined the term "paleoart" in 1987, stressed the importance of the cooperative effort between artists, paleontologists and other specialists in gaining access to information for generating accurate, realistic restorations of extinct animals and their environments.[8][9]
Since paleontological knowledge and public perception of the field have changed dramatically since the earliest attempts at reconstructing prehistory, paleoart as a discipline has consequently changed over time as well. This has led to difficulties in creating a shared definition of the term. Given that the drive towards scientific accuracy has always been a salient feature of the discipline, some authors point out the importance of separating true paleoart from "paleoimagery", which is defined as a broader category of paleontology-influenced imagery that may include a variety of cultural and media depictions of prehistoric life in various manifestations, but does not necessarily include scientific accuracy as a recognized goal.
In an attempt to establish a common definition of the term, Ansón and colleagues (2015) conducted an empirical survey of the international paleontological community with a questionnaire on various aspects of paleoart. 78% of the surveyed participants stated agreement with the importance of scientific accuracy in paleoart, and 87% of respondents recognized an increase in accuracy of paleoart over time.[17]
Aims and production
The production of paleoart requires by definition substantial reading of research and reference-gathering to ensure scientific credibility at the time of production.[18] Aims of paleoart range from communicating scientific knowledge to evoking emotion through fascination at nature.[19] The artist James Gurney, known for the Dinotopia series of fiction books, has described the interaction between scientists and artists as the artist being the eyes of the scientist, since his illustrations bring shape to the theories; paleoart determines how the public perceives long extinct animals.[20] Apart from the goal of accuracy on its own, the intentions of the paleoartist may be manifold, and include the illustrating of specific scientific hypotheses, suggesting new hypotheses, or anticipating paleontological knowledge through illustration that can be later verified by fossil evidence.[21] Paleoart can even be used as a research methodology in itself, such as in the creation of scale models to estimate weight approximations and size proportions.[22] Paleoart is also frequently used as a tool for public outreach and education, including through the production and sale of paleontology-themed toys, books, movies, and other products.[23]
Scientific principles
Although every artist's process will differ, Witton (2018) recommends a standard set of requirements to produce artwork that fits the definition. A basic understanding of the subject organism's place in time (
Several professional paleoartists recommend the consideration of contemporary animals in aiding accurate restorations, especially in cases where crucial details of pose, appearance and behavior are impossible to know from fossil material.[26][27] For example, most extinct animals' coloration and patterning are unknown from fossil evidence, but these can be plausibly restored in illustration based on known aspects of the animal's environment and behavior, as well as inference based on function such as thermoregulation, species recognition, and camouflage.[28]
Artistic principles
In addition to a scientific understanding, paleoart incorporates a traditional approach to art, the use and development of style, medium, and subject matter that is unique to each artist.[29] The success of a piece of paleoart depends on its strength of composition as much as any other genre of artistry. Command of object placement, color, lighting, and shape can be indispensable to communicating a realistic depiction of prehistoric life.[30] Drawing skills also help form an important basis of effective paleoillustration, including an understanding of perspective, composition, command of a medium, and practice at life drawing.[31] Paleoart is unique in its compositional challenge in that its content must be imagined and inferred, as opposed to directly referenced, and, in many cases, this includes animal behavior and environment.[32] To this end, artists must keep in mind the mood and purpose of a composition in creating an effective piece of paleoart.[33]
Many artists and enthusiasts think of paleoart as having validity as art for its own sake. The incomplete nature of the fossil record, varying interpretations of what material exists, and the inability to observe behavior ensures that the illustration of dinosaurs has a speculative component. Therefore, a variety of factors other than science can influence paleontological illustrators, including the expectations of editors, curators, and commissioners, as well as long-standing assumptions about the nature of ancient organisms that may be repeated through generations of paleoart, regardless of accuracy.[34]
History
"Proto-paleoart" (pre-1800)
While the word "paleoart" is relatively recent, the practice of restoring ancient life based on real fossil remains can be considered to have originated around the same time as paleontology.
The earliest definitive works of "proto-paleoart" that unambiguously depict the life appearance of fossil animals come from fifteenth and sixteenth century Europe. One such depiction is Ulrich Vogelsang's statue of a
The German textbook
Eighteenth century skeletal reconstructions of the
Early scientific paleoart (1800–1890)
The beginning of the 19th century saw the first paleontological artworks with an unambiguous scientific basis, and this emergence coincided with paleontology being seen as a distinct field of science. The French naturalist and professor
Similarly, private sketches of mammoth fossils drafted by
Cuvier went on to produce skeletal restorations of extinct mammals of his own. Some of these included restorations with musculature layered atop them, which in the early 1820s could be considered the earliest examples of illustrations of animal tissue built up over fossil skeletons. As huge and detailed fossil restorations were at this point appearing in the same publications as these modest attempts at soft tissue restoration, historians have speculated whether this reflected shame and lack of interest in paleoart as being too speculative to have scientific value at the time.[47] One notable deviation from the Cuvier-like approach is seen in a cartoon drawn by geologist William Conybeare in 1822. This cartoon depicts paleontologist William Buckland entering the famous British Kirkdale Cave, known for its Ice Age mammal remains, amidst a scene of fossil hyenas restored in the flesh in the ancient cave interior, the first known artwork depicting an extinct animal restored in a rendition of an ancient environment.[48] A similar step forward depicts a dragon-like animal meant to represent the pterosaur Dimorphodon flying over a coastline by George Howman; this 1829 watercolor painting was a fanciful piece that, albeit being not particularly scientific, was another very early attempt at restoring a fossil animal in a suitable habitat.[49]
In 1830, the first "fully realized" paleoart scene, depicting prehistoric animals in a realistic geological setting, was painted by British paleontologist
The role of art in disseminating paleontological knowledge took on a new salience as dinosaur illustration advanced alongside dinosaur paleontology in the mid-1800s. With only fragmentary fossil remains known at the time the term "dinosaur" was coined by Sir
The Crystal Palace models, despite their inaccuracy by today's standards, were a landmark in the advancement of paleoart as not only a serious academic undertaking, but also one that can capture the interest of the general public. The Crystal Palace dinosaur models were the first works of paleoart to be merchandised as postcards, guide books, and replicas to the general public.[60] In the latter half of the 1800s, this major shift could be seen in other developments taking place in academic books and paintings featuring scientific restorations of prehistoric life. For example, a book by French scientist Louis Figuier titled La Terre Avant le Deluge, published in 1863, was the first to feature a series of works of paleoart documenting life through time. Illustrated by French painter Édouard Riou, this book featured iconic scenes of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals based on Owen's constructions, and would establish a template for academic books featuring artworks of prehistoric life through time for years to come.[61]
"Classic" paleoart (1890–1970)
As the
Throughout the 1920s, '30s and '40s, Knight went on produce drawings, paintings and murals of dinosaurs, early man, and extinct mammals for the
Knight's illustrations also had a large and long-lasting influence on the depiction of prehistoric animals in popular culture. The earliest depictions of dinosaurs in movies, such as the 1933
Rudolph Zallinger and Zdeněk Burian both went on to influence the state of dinosaur art while Knight's career began to wind down. Zallinger, a
Zdeněk Burian, working from his native Czechoslovakia, followed the school of Knight and Zallinger, entering modern, biologically-informed paleoart scene via his extensive series of prehistoric life illustrations.[72] Burian entered the world of prehistoric illustration in the early 1930s with illustrations for fictional books set in various prehistoric times by amateur archaeologist Eduard Štorch. These illustrations brought him to the attention of paleontologist Josef Augusta, with whom Burian worked in cooperation from 1935 until Augusta's death in 1968.[73] This collaboration led ultimately to the launching of Burian's career in paleoart.[74]
Some authors have remarked on a darker, more sinister feel to his paleoart than that of his contemporaries, speculating that this style was informed by Burian's experience producing artwork in his native Czechoslovakia during World War II and, afterwards, under Soviet control. His depictions of suffering, death, and the harsh realities of survival that emerged as themes in his paleoart were unique at the time.
While Charles Knight, Rudolph Zallinger and Zdeněk Burian dominated the landscape of "classic" scientific paleoart in the first half of the 20th century, they were far from the only paleoartists working at this time. German landscape painter
The Dinosaur Renaissance (1970–2010)
This classic depiction of dinosaurs remained the status quo until the 1960s, when a minor scientific revolution began changing the perceptions of dinosaurs as tail-dragging, sluggish animals to active, alert creatures.
Bakker's influence during this period on then-fledgling paleoartists, such as Gregory S. Paul, as well as on public consciousness brought about a paradigm shift in how dinosaurs were perceived by artist, scientist and layman alike. The science and public understanding of dinosaur biology became charged by Bakker's innovative and often controversial ideas and portrayals, including the idea that dinosaurs were in fact warm-blooded animals like mammals and birds. Bakker's drawings of Deinonychus and other dinosaurs depicted the animals leaping, running, and charging, and his novel artistic output was accompanied by his writings on paleobiology, with his influential and well-known book The Dinosaur Heresies, published in 1986, now regarded as a classic.[82] American scientist-artist Gregory Paul, working originally as Bakker's student in the 1970s, became one of the leading illustrators of prehistoric reptiles in the 1980s and has been described by some authors as the paleoartist who may "define modern paleoart more than any other".[83] Paul is notable for his 'rigorous' approach to paleoartistic restorations, including his multi-view skeletal reconstructions, evidence-driven studies of musculature and soft tissue, and his attention to biomechanics to ensure realistic poses and gaits of his artistic subjects. The artistic innovation that Paul brought to the field of paleoart is to prioritize detail over atmosphere, leading to some criticism of his work as being 'flat' or lacking in depth, but also to imbue dinosaur depictions with a greater variety of naturalistic coloration and patterns, whereas most dinosaur coloration in artworks beforehand had been fairly drab and uniform.[84]
Ostrom, Bakker and Paul changed the landscape of depictions of prehistoric animals in science and popular culture alike throughout the 1970s, '80s and '90s. Their influence affected the presentation of museum displays throughout the world and eventually found its way into popular culture, with the climax of this period perhaps best marked by the 1990 novel and 1993 film
This movement was working in parallel with great strides in the scientific progress of vertebrate paleontology that were occurring during this time. Precision in anatomy and artistic reconstruction was aided by an increasingly detailed and sophisticated understanding of these extinct animals through new discoveries and interpretations that pushed paleoart into more objective territory with respect to accuracy.[90] For example, the feathered dinosaur revolution, facilitated by unprecedented discoveries in the Liaoning province of northern China in the late 1990s and early 2000s, was perhaps foreseen by artist Sarah Landry, who drew the first feathered dinosaur for Bakker's seminal Scientific American article in 1975. One of the first major shows of dinosaur art was published in 1986 by Sylvia Czerkas, along with the accompanying volume Dinosaurs Past and Present.[91]
Modern (and post-modern) paleoart (2010–present)
Although various authors are in agreement about the events that caused the beginning of the Dinosaur Renaissance, the transition to the modern age of paleoart has been more gradual, with differing attitudes about what typifies the demarcation. Gregory Paul's high-fidelity archosaur skeletal reconstructions provided a basis for ushering in the modern age of paleoart, which is perhaps best characterized by adding speculative flair to the rigorous, anatomically-conscious approach popularized by the Dinosaur Renaissance. Novel advances in paleontology, such as new feathered dinosaur discoveries and the various pigmentation studies of dinosaur integument that began around 2010, have become representative of paleoart after the turn of the millennium.[92] Witton (2018) characterizes the modern movement with the rise of digital art, as well as the establishment of an internet community that would enable paleoartists and enthusiasts to network, share digitized and open access scientific resources, and to build a global community that was unprecedented until the first decade of the twenty-first century. The continuum of work leading from the themes and advances that began in the Dinosaur Renaissance to the production of modern paleoart is showcased in several books that were published post-2010, such as Steve White's Dinosaur Art: The World's Greatest Paleoart (2012) and its "sequel", Dinosaur Art II: The Cutting Edge of Paleoart (2017).[93]
Although this transition was gradual, this period has been described as a salient cultural phenomenon that came about largely as a consequence of this increased connectivity and access to paleoart brought by the digital age. The saturation of paleoart with established and overused heuristics, many of which had been established by paleoartists working in the height of the revolution that came before, led to an increased awareness and criticism of the repetitive and unimaginative use of ideas that were, by the first decade of the 21st century, lacking in novelty. This observation led to a movement characterized by the idea that prehistoric animals could be shown in artworks engaging in a greater range of behaviors, habitats, styles, compositions, and interpretations of life appearance than had been imagined in paleoart up to that point, but without violating the principles of anatomical and scientific rigor that had been established by the paleoart revolution that came before.
Despite the importance of the "All Yesterdays" movement in hindsight, the book itself argued that the modern conceptualization of paleoart was based on anatomically rigorous restorations that came alongside and subsequent to Paul, including those who experimented with these principles outside of archosaurs. For example, artists that pioneered anatomically rigorous reconstructions of fossil
A 2013 study found that older paleoart was still influential in popular culture long after new discoveries made them obsolete. This was explained as
Recognition
Since 1999, the
Paleoart has enjoyed increasing exposure in globally recognized contests and exhibits. The Museu da Lourinhã organizes the annual International Dinosaur Illustration Contest[105] for promoting the art of dinosaur and other fossils. In fall of 2018, the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science of Albuquerque, New Mexico, displayed a juried show of paleoart called "Picturing the Past".[106] This show includes 87 works by 46 paleoartists from 15 countries, and features one of the largest and most diverse collections of prehistoric animals, settings, themes and styles.[107]
In addition to contests and art exhibitions, paleoart continues to play a significant role in public understanding of paleontology in a variety of ways. In 2007, The Children's Museum of Indianapolis released a lesson plan on paleoart for children of grades 3 to 5 that uses paleoart as a way to introduce children to paleontology.[108] Paleontological-themed merchandise has been around since at least the mid-1800s, but the popularity of anatomically-accurate and paleoart-based merchandise is relatively novel, such as Rebecca Groom's highly accurate plush toy reconstructions of extinct animals.[109] Starting in the 2010s, paleoart and its public perception have also been the exclusive focus of research articles that (e.g.) attempt to apply empirical methods to understand its role in society[110] or communicate its evolution over time to other scientists.[111]
Notable, influential paleoartists
Past (pre–Dinosaur Renaissance) paleoartists
2D artists
- Henry De la Beche (1796 – 1855)
- John Martin (1789 – 1854)
- Edward Newman (1801 – 1876)
- Richard Owen (1804 – 1892)
- Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins (1807 – 1894)
- Ferdinand von Hochstetter (1829 – 1884)
- Othniel Charles Marsh (1831 – 1899)
- Amédée Forestier (1854 – 1930)
- Heinrich Harder (1858 – 1935)
- Gerhard Heilmann (1859 – 1946)
- Joseph M. Gleeson (1861 – 1917)
- Alice B. Woodward (1862 – 1951)
- Ernest Untermann (1864 – 1956)
- William Diller Matthew (1871 – 1930)
- Charles R. Knight (1874 – 1953)
- Othenio Abel (1875 – 1946)
- James E. Allen (1894 – 1964)
- Alexey Bystrov(1899 – 1959)
- Zdeněk Burian (1905 – 1981)
- Rudolph Zallinger (1919 – 1995)
3D artists
- Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins (1807 – 1894)
- Richard Swann Lull (1867 – 1957)
- Charles W. Gilmore (1874 – 1945)
- Vasily Vatagin (1883 – 1969)
- Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov (1907 – 1970)
Modern (post–Dinosaur Renaissance) paleoartists
2D artists
- Eleanor Kish (1924 – 2014)
- Alex Ebel (1932 – 2013)
- Jay Matternes (b. 1933)
- Robert T. Bakker (b. 1945)
- Doug Henderson (b. 1949)
- John Sibbick (b. 1949)
- William Stout (b. 1949)
- John Gurche (b. 1951)
- Jan Sovák (b. 1953)
- Gregory S. Paul (b. 1954)
- Peter Trusler (b. 1954)
- Luis Rey (b. 1955)
- Wayne Barlowe (b. 1958)
- James Gurney (b. 1958)
- Karen Carr (b. 1960)
- Mauricio Antón (b. 1961)
- Ricardo Delgado (b. 1964)
- Steve White (b. 1964)
- Petr Modlitba (b. 1966)
- Nobu Tamura (b. 1966)
- Davide Bonadonna (b. 1968)
- Velizar Simeonovski (b. 1968)
- Julius T. Csotonyi (b. 1973)
- Darren Naish (b. 1975)
- Robert Nicholls (b. 1975)
- Sergey Krasovskiy (b. 1975)
- Andrey Atuchin (b. 1980)
- John Conway (b. 1981)
- C. M. Kosemen (b. 1984)
- Danielle Dufault (b. 1988/89)
- Todd Marshall
- Raúl Martín
- Josef Moravec
- Michael Skrepnick
- Mark P. Witton
3D artists
- David Rankin (b. 1946)
- Stephen A. Czerkas (1951 - 2015)
- Brian Cooley (b. 1956)
- Paul Sereno (b. 1957)
- Michael Trcic (b. 1960)
- David Krentz
Gallery
-
Skeletal restoration ofBrontosaurus excelsus, by Othniel Charles Marsh, 1896
-
Eurypterids by Ernst Haeckel, 1914
-
Staurikosaurus and rhynchosaur are animals of Geopark Paleorrota produced by paleoartist Clovis Dapper
-
Zhejiangopterus linhaiensis by John Conway, 2006
-
Mauricio Anton, 2008
-
Restoration of Anatosuchus by Todd Marshall, 2009
-
Quetzalcoatlus models in South Bank, created by Mark P. Witton for the Royal Society's 350th anniversary, 2010
-
Restoration ofJulius Csotonyi, 2012
-
Restoration of Dimorphodon by Mark P. Witton, 2015
-
Restoration of Serikornis by Emily Willoughby, 2017
Footnotes
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) pp. 28–34.
- ^ Paul (2000) pp. 107–112.
- ISBN 978-1-5275-0071-6.
- ^ Hallett (1987) pp. 97–113.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 17.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 11.
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) pp. 28–34.
- ^ Hallett (1987) pp. 97–113.
- ^ Hone (2012)
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) p. 29.
- ^ Debus & Debus (2012)
- ^ Witton (2016) pp. 7–8.
- ^ SVP Online
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) pp. 28–34.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 10.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 10–11.
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) p. 32.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 37.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 10.
- ^ Gurney (2009) p. 78.
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) p. 29.
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015) p. 31.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 13.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 38.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 37–43.
- ^ Czerkas in Currie & Padian (1997) pp. 626–627.
- ^ Henderson in Brett-Surman, Holtz & Farlow (2012) pp. 306–308.
- ^ Czerkas in Currie & Padian (1997) p. 628.
- ^ Henderson in Brett-Surman, Holtz & Farlow (2012) p. 305.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 184–185.
- ^ Henderson in Brett-Surman, Holtz & Farlow (2012) p. 305.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 184–185.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 184–213.
- ^ Henderson in Brett-Surman, Holtz & Farlow (2012) p. 306.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 7–8.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 17.
- ^ Mayor (2011)
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 18.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 18.
- ^ Otheniol (1939)
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 19–21.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 20–21.
- ^ Ariew (1998)
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 21.
- ^ Taquet & Padian (2004) pp. 157–175.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 22.
- ^ Rudwick (1992)
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 22.
- ^ Martill (2014) pp. 120–130.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 22.
- ^ Davidson (2008) p. 51.
- ^ Davidson (2008) p. 52.
- ^ Rudwick (1992)
- ^ Jäger, Tischlinger, Oleschinski & Sander (2018)
- ^ Colagrande & Felder (2000) p. 168.
- ^ Colagrande & Felder (2000) p. 170.
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 107.
- ^ Mantell (1851)
- ^ Sarjeant in Currie & Padian (1997) p. 162.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 26.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 26.
- ^ White (2012) p. 9.
- ^ Milner (2012) pp. 10–12.
- ^ Stout in Knight (2005) pp. ix–xiii.
- ^ Stout in Knight (2005) pp. ix–xiii.
- ^ Kalt (2002)
- ^ Milner (2012)
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 28–29.
- ^ Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History (2010)
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 110.
- ^ Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History (2010)
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 110.
- ^ Hochmanová-Burianová (1991) pp. 22–23.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 165.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 166.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 163.
- ^ Madzia, Boyd & Mazuch (2017) pp. 967–979.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) p. 110.
- ^ Lescaze (2017) pp. 111–114.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 32.
- ^ White (2012) p. 9.
- ^ Bakker (1986) pp. 523–525.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 32.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 32–33.
- ^ White (2012) pp. 8–9.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 33.
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 112.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 33.
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 111.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 34.
- ^ Paul (2000) p. 111.
- ^ Terakado (2017)
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 34.
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 35–36.
- ^ Witton (2016) p. 8.
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 36.
- ^ Conway, Kosemen & Naish (2012) p. 64.
- ^ Conway, Kosemen & Naish (2012) pp. 64–65.
- ^ Conway, Kosemen & Naish (2012) p. 10.
- ^ Switek in White (2017) p. 6.
- ^ Ross, Duggan-Haas & Allmon (2013) pp. 145–160.
- ^ Witton, Naish & Conway (2014)
- ^ Witton (2018) p. 35.
- ^ SVP Online
- ^ Museu da Lourinhã (2009)
- ^ Brummett (2018)
- ^ Pickrell (2018)
- ^ Children’s Museum of Indianapolis (2007)
- ^ Witton (2018) pp. 13–14.
- ^ Ansón, Fernández & Ramos (2015)
- ^ McDermott (2020)
References
- Abel, Othenio (1939). Vorzeitliche Tierreste im Deutschen Mythus, Brachtum und Volksglauben. Jena (Gustav Fischer).
- Ansón, Marco; Fernández, Manuel H.; Ramos, Pedro A. S. (2015). "Paleoart: term and conditions (A survey among paleontologists)". Current trends in Paleontology and Evolution. XIII EJIP Conference Proceedings. ISBN 978-84-606-7282-1.
- Ariew, R (1998). "Leibniz on the unicorn and various other curiosities". Early Science and Medicine (3): 39–50.
- JSTOR 3514623.
- Brummett, Chad (8 November 2018). "'Picturing the Past' Explores Paleo-Art". KRQE: Fox New Mexico.
- Colagrande, John; Felder, Larry (2000). In the Presence of Dinosaurs. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books. ISBN 978-0737000894.
- ISBN 978-1291177121.
- Czerkas, Sylvia J. (1997). "Reconstruction and Restoration". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. By Currie, Philip J.; Padian, Kevin (first ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0122268106.
- Debus, Allen A.; Debus, Diane E. (2002). Paleoimagery: The Evolution of Dinosaurs in Art. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland and Co. ISBN 978-0786464203.
- Davidson, Jane P. (2008). A History of Paleontology Illustration. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253351753.
- ISBN 978-0740785504.
- ISBN 978-0938644248.
- Henderson, Douglas (2012). "Chapter 16: Restoring Dinosaurs as Living Animals". The Complete Dinosaur. By Brett-Surman, M.K.; Holtz, Thomas R. Jr.; Farlow, James O. (second ed.). Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253357014.
- Hochmanová-Burianová, Eva (1991). Zdeněk Burian - pravěk a dobrodružství (rodinné vzpomínky). Prague: Magnet-Press. ISBN 978-80-85434-28-6.
- Hone, Dave (3 September 2012). "Drawing dinosaurs: how is palaeoart produced?". The Guardian.
- "International Dinosaur Illustration Contest". Museu da Lourinhã. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-02-06.
- Jäger, Kai R.K.; Tischlinger, Helmut; Oleschinski, Georg; Sander, P. Martin (2018). "Goldfuß was right: Soft part preservation in the Late Jurassic pterosaur Scaphognathus crassirostris revealed by reflectance transformation imaging (RTI) and UV light and the auspicious beginnings of paleo-art" (PDF). Palaeontologia Electronica. 21 (3): 4T. doi:10.26879/713. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
- Kalt, Roda Knight (2002–2008). "Welcome to the World of Charles R. Knight". Retrieved December 31, 2018.
- Lescaze, Zoë (2017). Paleoart: Visions of the prehistoric past. Taschen. ISBN 978-3836555111.
- Madzia, Daniel; Boyd, Clint A.; Mazuch, Martin (2017). "A basal ornithopod dinosaur from the Cenomanian of the Czech Republic". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 16 (11): 967–979. S2CID 90008574.
- Mantell, Gideon A. (1851). Petrifications and their teachings: or, a handbook to the gallery of organic remains of the British Museum. London: H. G. Bohn. OCLC 8415138.
- Martill, D. M. (2014). "Dimorphodon and the Reverend George Howman's noctivagous flying dragon: the earliest restoration of a pterosaur in its natural habitat". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 125 (1): 120–130. .
- Mayor, Adrienne (2011). The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times (second ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15013-0.
- McDermott, Amy (2020). "Dinosaur art evolves with new discoveries in paleontology" (PDF). PNAS. 117 (6): 2728–2731. PMID 32047097. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
- Milner, Richard (2012). Charles R. Knight: The Artist Who Saw Through Time. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0810984790.
- "Paleo Artists: Bringing Dinosaurs to Life! A Grade 3–5 Unit of Study" (PDF). The Children's Museum of Indianapolis. 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
- ISBN 978-0312262266.
- Pickrell, John (16 November 2018). "How dinosaurs are brought back to life—through art". National Geographic. Archived from the original on November 17, 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
- Ross, Robert M.; Duggan-Haas, Don; Allmon, Warren D. (2013). "The posture of Tyrannosaurus rex: Why do student views lag behind the science?" (PDF). Journal of Geoscience Education. 61 (1): 145–160. S2CID 162343784. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
- Rudwick, M.J. (1992). Scenes from Deep time: early pictorial representations of the prehistoric world. University of Chicago Press.
- Sarjeant, William A.S. (1997). "Crystal Palace". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. By Currie, Philip J.; Padian, Kevin (first ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0122268106.
- "Society of Vertebrate Paleontology: Lanzendorf-National Geographic Paleoart Prize". Retrieved July 27, 2018.
- Stout, William (2005). Introduction. Charles R. Knight: Autobiography of an Artist. By Knight, Charles Robert. G.T. Labs. ISBN 978-0-9660106-8-8.
- Taquet, P.; Padian, K. (2004). "The earliest known restoration of a pterosaur and the philosophical origins of Curvier's Ossemens Fossiles". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (2): 157–175. .
- Terakado, Kazuo (2017). The Art of the Dinosaur: Illustrations by the Top Paleoartists in the World. PIE International. ISBN 978-4756249227.
- Witton, Mark P.; Naish, Darren; Conway, John (2014). "State of the palaeoart" (PDF). Palaeontologia Electronica. 17 (3): 5E. doi:10.26879/145. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
- ISBN 978-1785003349.
- ISBN 978-1785004612.
- ISBN 978-0857685841.
- ISBN 978-1785653988.
- "Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History: Rudolph Franz Zallinger". 2010. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
- "Czym jest paleosztuka? Przegląd Geologiczny, Górnicki S. vol. 65, nr 3, 161-167". 2017. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
External links
- Paleoartists at Curlie
- Paleoartists Hall of Fame