Pali Canon

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Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
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Pāli Canon
1. Vinaya Piṭaka
2. Sutta Piṭaka
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka

The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of

Pāli language.[1] It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon.[2][3] It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.[4]

During the

Gautama Buddha.[a][6] The claim that the texts were "spoken by the Buddha" is meant in this non-literal sense.[7]

The existence of the bhanaka tradition existing until later periods, along with other sources, shows that oral tradition continued to exist side by side with written scriptures for many centuries to come. Thus, the so-called writing down of the scriptures[8] was only the beginning of a new form of tradition, and the innovation was probably opposed by the more conservative monks. As with many other innovations, it was only after some time that it was generally accepted. Therefore, it was much later that the records of this event were transformed into an account of a "council" (sangayana or sangiti) which was held under the patronage of King Vattagamani.

Textual fragments of similar teachings have been found in the

agama of other major Buddhist schools in India. They were however written down in various Prakrits other than Pali as well as Sanskrit. Some of those were later translated into Chinese (earliest dating to the late 4th century AD). The surviving Sri Lankan version is the most complete,[9] but was extensively redacted about 1,000 years after Buddha's death, in the 5th or 6th century CE.[10] The earliest textual fragments of canonical Pali were found in the Pyu city-states in Burma dating only to the mid 5th to mid 6th century CE.[11]

The Pāli Canon falls into three general categories, called

Tipiṭaka
("three baskets"). The three pitakas are as follows:

  1. sangha[12][9]
  2. Sutta Piṭaka (Sutra/Sayings Basket), discourses and sermons of Buddha, some religious poetry; the largest basket[12]
  3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka, treatises that elaborate Buddhist doctrines, particularly about mind; also called the "systematic philosophy" basket

The Vinaya Pitaka and the Sutta Pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of the early Buddhist schools, often termed

Early Buddhist Texts. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, however, is a strictly Theravada collection and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools.[13]

The Canon in the tradition

In pre-modern times the Pali Canon was not published in book form, but written on thin slices of wood (called a palm-leaf manuscript) or bamboo. The leaves are kept together by thin sticks, and the scripture is covered in cloth and kept in a box.

The Canon is traditionally described by the

buddhavacana), though this is not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.[14]

The traditional Theravādin (

Subcommentaries were written afterward, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravādin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.[15]

A spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of

Burma states[16] that the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.[17]

Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in Buddhist practice: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learned the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).[18][19]

The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematic: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.[20] Rupert Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.[21]

Origins

According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three pitakas.

Alu Viharaya Temple no earlier than 29–17 BC.[24]

The geographic setting of identifiable texts within the Canon generally corresponds to locations in the Ganges region of northeastern India, including the kingdoms of

Magadhi as spoken by the Buddha, linguists have identified Pali as being more closely related to other prakrit languages of western India, and found substantial incompatibilities with the few preserved examples of Magadhi and other north-eastern prakrit languages.[26] Linguistic research suggests that the teachings of the Buddha may have been recorded in an eastern Indian language originally, and transposed into the west Indian precursor of Pali sometime before the Asokan era.[25]

Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravādin, but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to

Peter Harvey, it[ambiguous] contains material which is at odds with later Theravādin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravādins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."[27] A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively.[28]

Theravada tradition generally treats the Canon as a whole as originating with the Buddha and his immediate disciples (with the exception of certain, generally Abhidhamma texts, that explicitly refer to events long after his death). Scholars differ in their views regarding the origin of the Pali Canon, but generally believe that the Canon includes several strata of relatively early and late texts, but with little consensus regarding the relative dating of different sections of the Canon or which texts belong to which era.[25]

Authorship

Authorship according to Theravadins

Prayudh Payutto argues that the Pali Canon represents the teachings of the Buddha essentially unchanged apart from minor modifications. He argues that it also incorporates teachings that precede the Buddha, and that the later teachings were memorized by the Buddha's followers while he was still alive. His thesis is based on study of the processes of the first great council, and the methods for memorization used by the monks, which started during the Buddha's lifetime. It's also based on the capability of a few monks, to this day, to memorize the entire canon.[29]

Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali argue that it is likely that much of the Pali Canon dates back to the time period of the Buddha. They base this on many lines of evidence including the technology described in the canon (apart from the obviously later texts), which matches the technology of his day which was in rapid development; that it doesn't include back written prophecies of the great Buddhist ruler King Ashoka (which Mahayana texts often do) suggesting that it predates his time; that in its descriptions of the political geography it presents India at the time of Buddha, which changed soon after his death; that it has no mention of places in South India, which would have been well known to Indians not long after Buddha's death; and various other lines of evidence dating the material back to his time.[7]

Authorship according to academic scholars

The views of scholars concerning the authorship of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories:[citation needed]

  1. Attribution to the
    Buddha
    himself and his early followers
  2. Attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism
  3. Agnosticism
Views concerning authorship of the Buddha himself

Several scholars of early Buddhism argue that the nucleus of the Buddhist teachings in the Pali Canon may derive from

Sutta Pitaka) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single person: the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death.[b][31]

Other scholars are more cautious, and attribute part of the Pali canon to the Buddha's early followers. Peter Harvey

J.W. de Jong said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest Buddhism, arguing that "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."[34]

Alex Wynne said that some texts in the Pali Canon may go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha's teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words.[e] He suggests the canon was composed soon after Buddha's paranirvana, but after a period of free improvisation, and then the core teachings were preserved nearly verbatim by memory.[35] Hajime Nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to Gautama as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him.[36]

Views concerning authorship in the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism

Most scholars agree there was a rough body of sacred literature that an early community maintained and transmitted.[37][f]

Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of

early schools
separated in about the fourth or third century BC.

Views concerning agnosticism

Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus.[38] Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from long after his death.

Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson[39] has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha.[37] Geoffrey Samuel[40] says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century AD.[41] Gregory Schopen argues[42] that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries AD that we have any definite evidence about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne.[5][importance?]

Authorship of the Abhidhamma Pitaka

Western scholarship suggests that the composition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka likely began around 300 BCE, but may have drawn on an earlier tradition of lists and rubrics known as "

Sariputra.[44][45]

The earliest books of the Pali Canon

Opinions differ on what the earliest books of the Canon are. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,

Suttanipata.[47] However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipāta is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udāna.[51] However,[non sequitur] some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching.[g]

Scholars generally agree that the early books include some later additions.

compared to?] period.[53][54][55] Aspects of the Pali Canon, such as what it says about society and South Asian history, are in doubt because the Pali Canon was extensively redacted in the 5th- or 6th-century AD, nearly a thousand years after the death of the Buddha.[10] Further, this redacted Pali Canon of Sri Lanka itself mentions that it was previously redacted towards the end of 1st-century BC. According to Early Buddhism scholar Lars Fogelin, the Pali Canon of Sri Lanka is a modified Canon and "there is no good reason to assume that Sri Lankan Buddhism resembles Early Buddhism in the mainland, and there are numerous reasons to argue that it does not."[56]

Dr. Peter Masefield M.P.T.S.[

which?] scripts. Masefield says records in Thailand state that upon the third re-introduction of Theravada Buddhism into Sri Lanka (The Siyamese Sect), large number of texts were also taken[where?]. When monastic ordination died out in Sri Lanka, many texts were lost also. Therefore[non sequitur] the Sri Lankan Pali Canon had been translated first into Indo-Chinese Pali, and then, at least in part, back again into Pali.[57]

One of the edicts of Ashoka, the "Calcutta-Bairat edict", lists several works from the canon which Ashoka considered advantageous. According to Alexander Wynne:

The general consensus seems to be that what Asoka calls Munigatha correspond to the Munisutta (Sn 207–221), Moneyasute is probably the second half of the Nalakasutta (Sn 699–723), and Upatisapasine may correspond to the Sariputtasutta (Sn 955–975). The identification of most of the other titles is less certain, but Schmithausen, following Oldenberg before him, identifies what Asoka calls the Laghulovada with part of a prose text in the

Majjhima Nikaya, the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta (M no. 61).[58]

This seems to be evidence that some of these texts were already fixed by the time of the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BC), which means that some of the texts carried by the Buddhist missionaries at this time might also have been fixed.[58]

According to the Sri Lankan

Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[59][60][61] though Schopen questions this.[citation needed
]

Texts

Manuscripts

Burmese-Pali manuscript copy of the Buddhist text Mahaniddesa, showing three different types of Burmese script, (top) medium square, (centre) round and (bottom) outline round in red lacquer from the inside of one of the gilded covers

The climate of Theravāda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[62] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[63]

Printed editions and digitized editions

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.[64] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West:

Translations

Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[78] Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly.[30] The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized[79] as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists".[80]

Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.

A translation by

Majjhima Nikaya
was published by Wisdom Publications in 1995.

Translations by

Anguttara Nikaya
were published by Wisdom Publications in 2003 and 2012, respectively.

In 2018, new translations of the entirety of the five

Bhikkhu Sujato, the translations were also released into the Public domain
.

A Japanese translation of the Canon, edited by Takakusu Junjiro, was published in 65 volumes from 1935 to 1941 as The Mahātripiṭaka of the Southern Tradition (南伝大蔵経 Nanden daizōkyō).

A Chinese translation of the above-mentioned Japanese translation was undertaken between 1990–1998 and thereafter printed under the patronage of Kaoshiung's Yuan Heng Temple.[citation needed]

Contents of the Canon

As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.

  • Vinaya Pitaka
    (vinayapiṭaka)
  • Sutta Pitaka
    or Suttanta Pitaka
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka

Details are given below. For more complete information, see standard references on Pali literature.[81][82]

Vinaya Pitaka

The first category, the

sangha, both monks and nuns
. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts:

Sutta Pitaka

The second category is the

nikayas
:

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third category, the

Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a scholastic explanation of Buddhist doctrines particularly about mind, and sometimes referred to as the "systematic philosophy" basket.[12][43]
There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka:

The traditional position is that abhidhamma refers to the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas:[53][85] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.[86]

Use of Brahmanical Language

The Pali Canon uses many

Gayatri mantra
as the foremost meter:

aggihuttamukhā yaññā sāvittī chandaso mukham.

— Sacrifices have the agnihotra as foremost; of meter the foremost is the Sāvitrī.[87]

These Brahmanical motives are sometimes introduced in order to "establish a link with the deeds and beliefs of Brahmins", referencing "shared ideas" that were part of the culture of ancient India.[88] In many other instances, they are introduced in order to establish unfavorable comparisons with Buddhist teachings or practices- after identifying the fire sacrifice as the foremost of the Brahminist sacrifices, the Buddha goes on to explain how it is surpassed by the kindling of "inner light" that he practices as an arhat.[89]

Comparison with other Buddhist canons

See also: Āgama (Buddhism)

The other two main Buddhist canons in use in the present day are the

Chinese Buddhist Canon and the Tibetan Kangyur
.

The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon is the

Chinese Buddhist Canon was done during the Song dynasty by imperial order in China in AD 971; the earliest dated printed Buddhist sutra was the Diamond Sutra printed in AD 868 (printed by an upāsaka for free distribution); although printing of individual Buddhist sutras and related materials may have started as early as the 7th century AD.[90]

The Tibetan Kangyur comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Dhammapada (under the title Udanavarga) and parts of some other books. Due to the later compilation, it contains comparatively fewer early Buddhist texts than the Pali and Chinese canons.

The Chinese and Tibetan canons are not translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the Abhidharma books are fundamentally different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Chinese and Tibetan canons also consist of

Vajrayāna tantras, which have few parallels in the Pali Canon.[h]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ If the language of the Pāli canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka.[5]
  2. ^ "I am saying that there was a person called the Buddha, that the preachings probably go back to him individually ... that we can learn more about what he meant, and that he was saying some very precise things."[30]
  3. ^ "While parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha, much must derive from his teaching."[2]
  4. ^ "there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers." [33]
  5. ^ "If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha's teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words".
  6. ^ Ronald Davidson states, "most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed) that a relatively early community (disputed) maintained and transmitted."[37]
  7. ^ "as the Buddha taught for 45 years, some signs of development in teachings may only reflect changes during this period."[2]
  8. ^ Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur.[91]

References

  1. ^ Gombrich 2006, p. 3.
  2. ^ a b c Harvey 1990, p. 3.
  3. ^ Maguire 2001, p. 69–.
  4. ^ Hahn, Thich Nhat (2015). The Heart of Buddha's Teachings. Harmony. p. 16.
  5. ^ a b Wynne 2003.
  6. doi:10.1163/15728536-05800051
    . The idea that Buddhist texts were first written down in the first century bce has been widely current since the nineteenth century, but has never been much more than a guess. Its only basis is a short passage, two verses long, found in both the fourth or fifth-century Dīpavaṃsa and later Mahāvaṃsa,that states that the Tipiṭaka and commentaries were first written down at this time...however, it fairly clearly does not even intend to record the first time writing was ever used for Buddhist texts, but the first creation of a complete set of written scriptures in Sri Lanka.
  7. ^
    ISBN 978-1-312-91150-5
  8. ^ "THE MAHAVAMSA c.33: The Ten Kings". mahavamsa.org. 8 October 2011. Retrieved 2020-12-24.
  9. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8
    .
  10. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7591-0750-2
    ., Quote: "As of the Pali Canon of Sri Lanka, it was extensively redacted in the fifth or sixth century A.D. (Bechert 1978; Collins 1990; Trainor 1997)".
  11. ^ Stargardt, Janice (2000). Tracing Thoughts Through Things: The Oldest Pali Texts and the Early Buddhist Archaeology of India and Burma. Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 25.
  12. ^ a b c d e Gombrich 2006, p. 4.
  13. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
  14. ^ Gombrich 2006, p. 20.
  15. ^ Gombrich 2006, p. 153-4.
  16. ^ Morgan 1956, p. 71.
  17. ^ McDaniel 2005, p. 302.
  18. ^ Mendelson 1975, p. 266.
  19. ^ Brown & Anderson 2006.
  20. ^ Manné 1990, p. 103f.
  21. ^ Gethin 1998, p. 43.
  22. ^ Book of the Discipline, vol. VI, p. 123.[full citation needed]
  23. ^ Norman 2005, pp. 75–76.
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  27. ^ Harvey 1995, p. 9.
  28. ^ Wynne 2007, p. 4.
  29. ^ Payutto, P. A. "The Pali Canon: What a Buddhist Must Know" (PDF).
  30. ^ a b Gombrich, Richard, Interview by Kathleen Gregory, archived from the original on 2016-01-24, retrieved 2011-05-29
  31. ^ Gombrich 2006, pp. 20ff.
  32. ^ "Peter Harvey". Buddhist Ethics Network. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15.
  33. ^ Warder 2000, p. inside flap.
  34. ^ De Jong 1993, p. 25.
  35. ^ Wynne, Alex. "The Oral Transmission of Early Buddhist Literature – Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (Volume 27. No. 1 2004)".
  36. ^ Nakamura 1999, p. 57.
  37. ^ a b c Davidson 2003, p. 147.
  38. ^ Buswell 2004, p. 10.
  39. ^ "Dr. Ronald M. Davidson". Fairfield University. Archived from the original on 2013-07-19.
  40. ^ "Prof Geoffrey Samuel". Archived from the original on 2014-08-13.
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  42. ^ Schopen 1997, p. 24.
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    ISBN 978-0-19-157917-2
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  44. ^ Dī.A. (sumaṅgala.1) Sumaṅgalavilāsinī dīghanikāyaṭṭhakathā sīlakkhandhavaggavaṇṇanā nidānakathā
  45. ^ Saṅgaṇi.A. (aṭṭhasālinī) Dhammasaṅgiṇī Abhidhamma-Atthakathā Nidānakathā
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  53. ^ a b c Harvey 1990, p. 83.
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  58. ^ a b Wynne 2004.
  59. ^ Ñāṇamoli & Warder 1982, p. xxxix.
  60. ^ Gethin 1992, p. 8.
  61. ^ Harvey, p. 3, [date missing].
  62. ^ von Hinüber 2000, pp. 4–5.
  63. ^ a b "Pali Text Society Home Page". Palitext.com. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
  64. ^ Grönbold 1984, p. 12 (as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete).
  65. ^ Allon 1997, pp. 109–29.
  66. ^ Warder 1963, pp. 382.
  67. ^ a b "Welcome to BUDSIR on Internet". BUDSIR on Internet. Archived from the original on 2012-12-08. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
  68. ^ Hamm 1973.
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  76. ^ Marston, John (2004). History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia, p. 77. University of Hawaii Press.
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  78. ^ Norman 1996, pp. 80.
  79. ^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, Volume XXIX, page 102.[full citation needed]
  80. ^ Griffiths 1981, pp. 17–32.
  81. ^ Norman 1983.
  82. ^ von Hinüber 2000, pp. 24–26.
  83. ^ a b Harvey 1990, appendix.
  84. ^ a b Manné 1990, pp. 29–88.
  85. ^ Gethin 1998, p. 44.
  86. ^ Cousins 1982, p. 7.
  87. ^ Shults, Brett (May 2014). "On the Buddha's Use of Some Brahmanical Motifs in Pali Texts". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 6: 119.
  88. ^ Shults 2014, p. 120.
  89. ^ Shults 2014, p. 123.
  90. ^ Jiang, Wu; Chia, Lucille; Chen, Zhichao (2016). Jiang, Wu; Chia, Lucille (eds.). Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia – The Formation and Transformation of The Chinese Buddhist Canon. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 145. "In the fourth year of the Kaibao 開寶 reign (971), Emperor Taizu (r. 960-975) of the Song Dynasty 宋太祖 ordered the first carving of a set of woodblocks for the Chinese Buddhist Canon." (aka the Kaibao Canon)
  91. ^ Skilling 1997, p. 84n, 553ff, 617ff..

Sources

Further reading

External links

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