Palladian architecture
Palladian architecture is a European architectural style derived from the work of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). What is today recognised as Palladian architecture evolved from his concepts of symmetry, perspective and the principles of formal classical architecture from ancient Greek and Roman traditions. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture developed into the style known as Palladianism.
Palladianism emerged in England in the early 17th century, led by
The Palladian style was also widely used throughout Europe, often in response to English influences. In Prussia the critic and courtier Francesco Algarotti corresponded with Burlington about his efforts to persuade Frederick the Great of the merits of the style, while Knobelsdorff's opera house in Berlin on the Unter den Linden, begun in 1741, was based on Campbell's Wanstead House. Later in the century, when the style was losing favour in Europe, Palladianism had a surge in popularity throughout the British colonies in North America. Thomas Jefferson sought out Palladian examples, which themselves drew on buildings from the time of the Roman Republic, to develop a new architectural style for the American Republic. Examples include the Hammond–Harwood House in Maryland and Jefferson's own house, Monticello, in Virginia. The Palladian style was also adopted in other British colonies, including those in the Indian subcontinent.
In the 19th century, Palladianism was overtaken in popularity by Neoclassical architecture in both Europe and in North America. By the middle of that century, both were challenged and then superseded by the Gothic Revival in the English-speaking world, whose champions such as Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, deemed the style too pagan for true Christian worship. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Palladianism has continued to evolve as an architectural style; its pediments, symmetry and proportions are evident in the design of many modern buildings, while its inspirer is regularly cited as having been among the world's most influential architects.
Palladio's architecture
Palladio's
Palladio would often model his villa elevations on
Palladio considered the dual purpose of his villas as the centres of farming estates and weekend retreats.[18] These symmetrical temple-like houses often have equally symmetrical, but low, wings, or barchessas, sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals, and agricultural stores.[19] The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement and accentuate the villa. Palladio did not intend them to be part of the main house, but the development of the wings to become integral parts of the main building – undertaken by Palladio's followers in the 18th century – became one of the defining characteristics of Palladianism.[20]
Venetian and Palladian windows
Palladian, Serlian,[n 4] or Venetian windows are a trademark of Palladio's early career. There are two different versions of the motif: the simpler one is called a Venetian window, and the more elaborate a Palladian window or "Palladian motif", although this distinction is not always observed.[22]
The Venetian window has three parts: a central high round-arched opening, and two smaller rectangular openings to the sides. The side windows are topped by
Palladio's elaboration of this, normally used in a series, places a larger or giant order in between each window, and doubles the small columns supporting the side lintels, placing the second column behind rather than beside the first. This was introduced in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice by Jacopo Sansovino (1537), and heavily adopted by Palladio in the Basilica Palladiana in Vicenza,[28] where it is used on both storeys; this feature was less often copied. The openings in this elaboration are not strictly windows, as they enclose a loggia. Pilasters might replace columns, as in other contexts. Sir John Summerson suggests that the omission of the doubled columns may be allowed, but the term "Palladian motif" should be confined to cases where the larger order is present.[29]
Palladio used these elements extensively, for example in very simple form in his entrance to
A variant, in which the motif is enclosed within a relieving blind arch that unifies the motif, is not Palladian, though Richard Boyle seems to have assumed it was so, in using a drawing in his possession showing three such features in a plain wall. Modern scholarship attributes the drawing to Vincenzo Scamozzi.[n 7] Burlington employed the motif in 1721 for an elevation of Tottenham Park in Savernake Forest for his brother-in-law Lord Bruce (since remodelled).[36][n 8] William Kent used it in his designs for the Houses of Parliament, and it appears in his executed designs for the north front of Holkham Hall.[38] Another example is Claydon House, in Buckinghamshire; the remaining fragment is one wing of what was intended to be one of two flanking wings to a vast Palladian house. The scheme was never completed and parts of what was built have since been demolished.[30]
Early Palladianism
During the 17th century, many architects studying in Italy learned of Palladio's work, and on returning home adopted his style, leading to its widespread use across Europe and North America.[40][41] Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the world were brought about in this way, although the style did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century.[42] An early reaction to the excesses of Baroque architecture in Venice manifested itself as a return to Palladian principles. The earliest neo-Palladians there were the exact contemporaries Domenico Rossi (1657–1737)[n 9] and Andrea Tirali (1657–1737).[n 10] Their biographer, Tommaso Temanza, proved to be the movement's most able proponent; in his writings, Palladio's visual inheritance became increasingly codified and moved towards neoclassicism.[44]
The most influential follower of Palladio was Inigo Jones, who travelled throughout Italy with the art collector Earl of Arundel in 1613–1614, annotating his copy of Palladio's treatise.[45][n 11][n 12] The "Palladianism" of Jones and his contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of façades, with the mathematical formulae dictating layout not strictly applied. A handful of country houses in England built between 1640 and 1680 are in this style.[48][49] These follow the success of Jones's Palladian designs for the Queen's House at Greenwich,[50] the first English Palladian house,[51] and the Banqueting House at Whitehall, the uncompleted royal palace in London of Charles I.[52]
Palladian designs advocated by Jones were too closely associated with the court of Charles I to survive the turmoil of the
Neo-Palladianism
English Palladian architecture
The Baroque style proved highly popular in continental Europe, but was often viewed with suspicion in England, where it was considered "theatrical, exuberant and Catholic."[58][59] It was superseded in Britain in the first quarter of the 18th century when four books highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture.[60][61] These were:
- Vitruvius Britannicus (The British Architect), published by Colen Campbell in 1715 (of which supplemental volumes appeared through the century);[62]
- I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), by Palladio himself, translated by Giacomo Leoni and published from 1715 onwards;[62]
- De re aedificatoria (On the Art of Building), by Leon Battista Alberti, translated by Giacomo Leoni and published in 1726;[63] and
- The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs, published by William Kent in two volumes in 1727. A further volume, Some Designs of Mr. Inigo Jones and Mr. William Kent was published in 1744 by the architect John Vardy, an associate of Kent.[63]
The most favoured among patrons was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Campbell,[64][65][n 13] The series contains architectural prints of British buildings inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones, but the later works contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects.[67][n 14] These four books greatly contributed to Palladian architecture becoming established in 18th-century Britain.[69] Campbell and Kent became the most fashionable and sought-after architects of the era. Campbell had placed his 1715 designs for the colossal Wanstead House near to the front of Vitruvius Britannicus, immediately following the engravings of buildings by Jones and Webb, "as an exemplar of what new architecture should be".[70] On the strength of the book, Campbell was chosen as the architect for Henry Hoare I's Stourhead house.[71] Hoare's brother-in-law, William Benson, had designed Wilbury House, the earliest 18th-century Palladian house in Wiltshire, which Campbell had also illustrated in Vitruvius Britannicus.[72][n 15]
At the forefront of the new school of design was the "architect earl",
In 1734 Kent and Burlington designed
Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each individual client. When in 1746 the
The villa tradition continued throughout the late 18th century, particularly in the suburbs around London. Sir William Chambers built many examples, such as Parkstead House.[94] But the grander English Palladian houses were no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats that their Italian counterparts were intended as. They had become "power houses", in Sir John Summerson's words, the symbolic centres of the triumph and dominance of the Whig Oligarchy who ruled Britain unchallenged for some fifty years after the death of Queen Anne.[95][96] Summerson thought Kent's Horse Guards on Whitehall epitomised "the establishment of Palladianism as the official style of Great Britain".[63] As the style peaked, thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away. Rather than square houses with supporting wings, these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration: long houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size.[97]
Irish Palladian architecture
During the Palladian revival period in Ireland, even modest mansions were cast in a neo-Palladian mould. Irish Palladian architecture subtly differs from the England style. While adhering as in other countries to the basic ideals of Palladio, it is often truer to them.[98] In Ireland, Palladianism became political; both the original and the present Irish parliaments in Dublin occupy Palladian buildings.[99][n 20]
The Irish architect Sir
Other examples include
North American Palladian architecture
Palladio's influence in North America is evident almost from its first architect-designed buildings.[n 22] The Irish philosopher George Berkeley, who may be America's first recorded Palladian, bought a large farmhouse in Middletown, Rhode Island, in the late 1720s, and added a Palladian doorcase derived from Kent's Designs of Inigo Jones (1727), which he may have brought with him from London.[119] Palladio's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes amassed for Yale College.[120] Peter Harrison's 1749 designs for the Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island, borrow directly from Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura, while his plan for the Newport Brick Market, conceived a decade later, is also Palladian.[121]
Two colonial period houses that can be definitively attributed to designs from I quattro libri dell'architettura are the
Jefferson referred to I quattro libri dell'architettura as his bible.[n 23] Although a statesman, his passion was architecture,[130] and he developed an intense appreciation of Palladio's architectural concepts; his designs for the James Barbour Barboursville estate, the Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia campus were all based on illustrations from Palladio's book.[131][132][n 24] Realising the political significance of ancient Roman architecture to the fledgling American Republic, Jefferson designed his civic buildings, such as The Rotunda,[134] in the Palladian style, echoing in his buildings for the new republic examples from the old.[135]
In
The White House in Washington, D.C., was inspired by Irish Palladianism.[107] Its architect James Hoban, who built the executive mansion between 1792 and 1800, was born in Callan, County Kilkenny, in 1762, the son of tenant farmers on the estate of Desart Court, a Palladian House designed by Pearce.[144] He studied architecture in Dublin, where Leinster House (built c. 1747) was one of the finest Palladian buildings of the time.[107] Both Cassel's Leinster House and James Wyatt's Castle Coole have been cited as Hoban's inspirations for the White House but the more neoclassical design of that building, particularly of the South façade which closely resembles Wyatt's 1790 design for Castle Coole, suggests that Coole is perhaps the more direct progenitor. The architectural historian Gervase Jackson-Stops describes Castle Coole as "a culmination of the Palladian traditions, yet strictly neoclassical in its chaste ornament and noble austerity",[145] while Alistair Rowan, in his 1979 volume, North West Ulster, of the Buildings of Ireland series, suggests that, at Coole, Wyatt designed a building, "more massy, more masculine and more totally liberated from Palladian practice than anything he had done before."[146]
Because of its later development, Palladian architecture in Canada is rarer. In her 1984 study, Palladian Style in Canadian Architecture, Nathalie Clerk notes its particular impact on public architecture, as opposed to the private houses in the United States.
Palladianism elsewhere
The rise of neo-Palladianism in England contributed to its adoption in Prussia. Count Francesco Algarotti wrote to Lord Burlington to inform him that he was recommending to Frederick the Great the adoption in his own country of the architectural style Burlington had introduced in England.[150] By 1741, Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff had already begun construction of the Berlin Opera House on the Unter den Linden, based on Campbell's Wanstead House.[151]
Palladianism was particularly adopted in areas under British colonial rule. Examples can be seen in the Indian subcontinent; the Raj Bhavan, Kolkata (formerly Government House) was modelled on Kedleston Hall,[152] while the architectural historian Pilar Maria Guerrieri identifies its influences in Lutyens' Delhi.[153] In South Africa, Federico Freschi notes the "Tuscan colonnades and Palladian windows" of Herbert Baker's Union Buildings.[154]
Legacy
By the 1770s, British architects such as Robert Adam and William Chambers were in high demand, but were now drawing on a wide variety of classical sources, including from ancient Greece, so much so that their forms of architecture became defined as neoclassical rather than Palladian.[156][157] In Europe, the Palladian revival ended by the close of the 18th century. In the 19th century, proponents of the Gothic Revival such as Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, considered it pagan, and unsuited to Anglican and Anglo-Catholic worship.[158][159][n 26] In North America, Palladianism lingered a little longer; Thomas Jefferson's floor plans and elevations owe a great deal to Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura.[161]
The term Palladian is often misused in modern discourse and tends to be used to describe buildings with any classical pretensions.[162][163] There was a revival of a more serious Palladian approach in the 20th century when Colin Rowe, an influential architectural theorist, published his essay, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, (1947), in which he drew links between the compositional "rules" in Palladio's villas and Le Corbusier's villas at Poissy and Garches.[164][165] Suzanne Walters' article The Two Faces of Modernism suggests a continuing influence of Palladio's ideas on architects of the 20th century.[166][n 27] In the 21st century Palladio's name regularly appears among the world's most influential architects.[168][169][170] In England, Raymond Erith (1904–1973) drew on Palladian inspirations, and was followed in this by his pupil, subsequently partner, Quinlan Terry.[171] Their work, and that of others,[155] led the architectural historian John Martin Robinson to suggest that "the Quattro Libri continues as the fountainhead of at least one strand in the English country house tradition."[172][n 28][n 29]
See also
- City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto
- New Classical architecture
- Giacomo Quarenghi
- Riviera del Brenta
Notes, references and sources
Notes
- ^ Palladio's description of the Villa Capra includes the commentary; "One enjoys the most beautiful views on all sides and for this reason, porticos have been built on all four sides."[11]
- ^ Giles Worsley, in his study Inigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradition, writes; "The portico is so strongly associated today with the country house, and specifically with Palladio's villas, it is easy to forget that, outside of the Veneto, it was principally associated with religious buildings until the late seventeenth century".[10]
- ^ Wundram and Pape describe Palladio's approach in the chapter on the Villa Capra in their 2004 study, Palladio: The Complete Buildings; "The proportions and principles become clear in the ground-plan with positively mathematical precision. The porticos take up half the width of the cubical central building. The column entrance halls and flights of steps each correspond to half the depth of the core of the building. In other words, the sum of the four porticos and flights of steps covers the same area as the main building."[16]
- ^ After Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554), an architect and illustrator whose L'Architetturra was a model for Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura.[21]
- ^ The architectural historian Timothy Mowl notes that the placing of the Venetian windows in each end bay was, in fact, "something Palladio never did."[27]
- ^ A notable example in America is the Palladian window set into the north front of Mount Vernon, George Washington's home in Virginia. The centrepiece of the New Room, and installed during Washington's second rebuilding, the window draws heavily on a design from Batty Langley's City and Country Builder's and Workman's Treasury of Designs, published in 1750.[33]
- ^ Inigo Jones met Scamozzi in Venice in 1613–1614 and the former's acerbic criticisms of the latter, "in this as in most things Scamozzi errs", have been much analysed by architectural historians. Nonetheless, Giles Worsley notes the large number of books and drawings by Scamozzi Jones held in his library, and their considerable influence on his work.[35]
- ^ A design by Burlington for a Kitchen block at Tottenham draws inspiration very directly from a Palladio design for the Villa Valmarana (Vigardolo).[37]
- Ca' Corner della Regina, 1724–1727.[43]
- ^ His façade of San Vidal is a faithful restatement of Palladio's San Francesco della Vigna and his masterwork is Tolentini, Venice (1706–1714).[43]
- ^ Inigo Jones's annotated copy of I quattro libri dell'architettura is held in the library of Worcester College, Oxford. Summerson described it as "a document fraught with great significance for English architecture."[46]
- ^ Jones travelled as far south as Naples where he closely studied the church of San Paolo Maggiore. Palladio had written about, and illustrated, this church which, before severe damage in an earthquake in 1688, "looked like the Roman temple it essentially was".[47]
- ^ Modern scholarship suggests that Campbell's talents as a copyist and self-publicist exceeded his architectural ability. John Harris, in his 1995 catalogue The Palladian Revival, accuses Campbell of "outrageous plagiari[sm]".[66]
- ^ Howard Colvin writes; "It was a book with a message, the superiority of ‘antique simplicity’ over the ‘affected and licentious’ forms of the Baroque".[68]
- Surveyor of the King's Works, but held the job for less than a year; John Summerson notes, "Benson proved his incompetence with surprising promptitude and resigned in 1719".[73]
- ^ James Stevens Curl considers Burlington, "one of the most potent influences on the development of English architecture in its entire history".[76]
- ^ At Holkham, the four wings contain a chapel, a kitchen, a guest wing and a private family wing.[82]
- ^ The architectural historian Mark Girouard, in his work, Life In The English Country House, notes that the arrangement developed by Palladio with the wings of the villa containing farm buildings was never followed in England. Although there are examples in Ireland and in North America, such "a close connection between house and farm was entirely at variance with the English tradition".[89]
- ^ Sir Aston Webb drew inspiration for his Buckingham Palace east frontage from the south front of Lyme Park, Cheshire by Giacomo Leoni (1686–1746).[92][93]
- ^ So much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set a Georgian stamp on the city; however, due to poor planning and poverty, Dublin was until recently one of the few cities where fine 18th-century housing could be seen in ruinous condition.[100]
- ^ Kilboy House, in Dolla, County Tipperary is a Palladian mansion that first burnt down in 1922. The reconstructed house was again destroyed by fire in 2005[114] and was rebuilt in a Palladian style by Quinlan Terry and his son Francis[115] for Tony Ryan, the founder of Ryanair.[116] Country Life described Kilboy as "the greatest new house in Europe".[117][118]
- ^ A brief survey is Robert Tavernor, "Anglo-Palladianism and the birth of a new nation" in Palladio and Palladianism, (1991), pp.181–209; Walter Muir Whitehill, Palladio in America, (1978) is still the standard work.
- ^ An exhibition, Jefferson and Palladio: Constructing a New World was held at the Palladio Museum in Vicenza in 2015–2016. The exhibition was dedicated to Mario Valmarana, Professor of Architecture at the University of Virginia and a descendant of the family who commissioned Palladio to design the Villa Valmarana.[128][129]
- ^ In a letter to James Oldham, dated Christmas Eve 1804, Jefferson wrote, "there never was a Palladio here even in private hands until I brought one. I send you my portable edition. It contains only the 1st book on the orders, which is the essential part".[133]
- ^ Specifically, both doors seem to have been derived from plates XXV and XXVI of Palladio Londinensis, a builder's guide first published in London in 1734, the year when the doorways may have been installed.[140]
- ^ The Palladian inspiration for modern British architects has not always been appreciated. In an article in Apollo entitled "The curse of Palladio", the critic Gavin Stamp critiqued Erith and Terry's work as "photocopy-Palladian, classical details stuck onto dull boxes".[173]
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- ^ Wittkower 1988, p. 31.
- ^ Curl 2016, p. 551.
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External links
- Center for Palladian Studies in America
- Inigo Jones document collection at Worcester College, Oxford
- International centre for the study of the architecture of Andrea Palladio (CISA) (in English and Italian)
- Thomas Jefferson's architecture
- Article on Palladian architecture in colonial Singapore, published by the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning