Palladium

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Palladium, 46Pd
Palladium
Pronunciation/pəˈldiəm/ (pə-LAY-dee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Pd)
Palladium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
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Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
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Ni

Pd

Pt
rhodiumpalladiumsilver
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization358 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity25.98 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1721 1897 2117 2395 2753 3234
Atomic properties
Discovery and first isolation
William Hyde Wollaston (1802)
Isotopes of palladium
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
100Pd synth 3.63 d ε
100Rh
γ
102Pd 1.02%
stable
103Pd synth 16.991 d ε
103Rh
104Pd 11.1% stable
105Pd 22.3% stable
106Pd 27.3% stable
107Pd trace 6.5×106 y
β
107Ag
108Pd 26.5% stable
110Pd 11.7% stable
 Category: Palladium
| references

Palladium is a

symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1802 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group
metals (PGMs). They have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

More than half the supply of palladium and its

hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells
, in which hydrogen and oxygen react to produce electricity, heat, and water.

investment
interest.

Characteristics

Palladium belongs to

Madelung rule would be expected to occupy the 5s instead fill the 4d orbitals, as it is more energetically favorable to have a completely filled 4d10 shell instead of the 5s2 4d8 configuration.[clarification needed
]

Z Element No. of electrons/shell
28 nickel 2, 8, 16, 2 (or 2, 8, 17, 1)
46 palladium 2, 8, 18, 18, 0
78 platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110 darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted)

This 5s0 configuration, unique in period 5, makes palladium the heaviest element having only one incomplete electron shell, with all shells above it empty.

Palladium has the appearance of a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has the lowest

annealed and is greatly increased in strength and hardness when cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in concentrated nitric acid, in hot, concentrated sulfuric acid, and when finely ground, in hydrochloric acid.[8] It dissolves readily at room temperature in aqua regia
.

Palladium does not react with

air
). Palladium heated to 800 °C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It may slowly develop a slight brownish coloration over time, likely due to the formation of a surface layer of its monoxide.

Palladium films with defects produced by alpha particle bombardment at low temperature exhibit superconductivity having Tc = 3.2 K.[9]

Isotopes

Naturally occurring palladium is composed of seven

u (91Pd) to 122.93426(64) u (123Pd).[10] These have half-lives of less than thirty minutes, except 101Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), 109Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and 112Pd (half-life: 21 hours).[11]

For isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, 106Pd, the primary

decay mode is electron capture with the primary decay product being rhodium. The primary mode of decay for those isotopes of Pd with atomic mass greater than 106 is beta decay with the primary product of this decay being silver.[11]

long-lived fission products
.

Compounds

Palladium compounds exist primarily in the 0 and +2 oxidation state. Other less common states are also recognized. Generally the compounds of palladium are more similar to those of platinum than those of any other element.

  • Structure of α-PdCl2
    Structure of α-PdCl2
  • Structure of β-PdCl2
    Structure of β-PdCl2

Palladium(II)

Palladium(II) chloride is the principal starting material for other palladium compounds. It arises by the reaction of palladium with chlorine. It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts such as palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon.[15] Solutions of PdCl2 in nitric acid react with acetic acid to give palladium(II) acetate, also a versatile reagent. PdCl2 reacts with ligands (L) to give square planar complexes of the type PdCl2L2. One example of such complexes is the benzonitrile derivative PdCl2(PhCN)2.[16][17]

PdCl2 + 2 L → PdCl2L2 (L =
PhCN, PPh3, NH3
, etc)

The complex

Palladium(II) acetate
Platinum-palladium ore from the Stillwater mine in the Beartooth Mountains, Montana, US
Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-palladium ore) from the Stillwater mine in Montana

Palladium(0)

Palladium forms a range of zerovalent complexes with the formula PdL4, PdL3 and PdL2. For example, reduction of a mixture of PdCl2(PPh3)2 and PPh3 gives tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0):[19]

2 PdCl2(PPh3)2 + 4 PPh3 + 5 N2H4 → 2 Pd(PPh3)4 + N2 + 4 N2H5+Cl

Another major palladium(0) complex, tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd2(dba)3), is prepared by reducing sodium tetrachloropalladate in the presence of dibenzylideneacetone.[20]

Palladium(0), as well as palladium(II), are catalysts in

Akira Suzuki. Such reactions are widely practiced for the synthesis of fine chemicals. Prominent coupling reactions include the Heck, Suzuki, Sonogashira coupling, Stille reactions, and the Kumada coupling. Palladium(II) acetate, tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (Pd(PPh3)4), and tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd2(dba)3) serve either as catalysts or precatalysts.[21]

Other oxidation states

Although Pd(IV) compounds are comparatively rare, one example is

compounds of palladium(III) are also known.[22] Palladium(VI) was claimed in 2002,[23][24] but subsequently disproven.[25][26]

Mixed valence palladium complexes exist, e.g. Pd4(CO)4(OAc)4Pd(acac)2 forms an infinite Pd chain structure, with alternatively interconnected Pd4(CO)4(OAc)4 and Pd(acac)2 units.[27]

When alloyed with a more

lanthanides.[29]

Occurrence

Palladium output in 2005

As overall mine production of palladium reached 210,000 kilograms in 2022, Russia was the top producer with 88,000 kilograms, followed by South Africa, Canada, the U.S., and Zimbabwe.[30] Russia's company Norilsk Nickel ranks first among the largest palladium producers globally, accounting for 39% of the world's production.[31]

Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are nickel-copper deposits found in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, and the Norilsk–Talnakh deposits in Siberia. The other large deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South Africa. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.[32][33] Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite[34] and polarite.[35] Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.[36]

Palladium is also produced in

high-level radioactive waste.[37] A complication for the recovery of palladium in spent fuel is the presence of 107
Pd
, a slightly radioactive long-lived fission product. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the 107
Pd
might make the recovered palladium unusable without a costly step of isotope separation
.

Applications

Cross section of a metal-core catalytic converter
The Soviet 25-rouble commemorative palladium coin is a rare example of the monetary usage of palladium.

The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.

ISO currency codes of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being gold, silver and platinum.[42] Because it adsorbs hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial cold fusion experiments of the late 1980s.[43]

Catalysis

When it is finely divided, as with

catalyst; it speeds heterogeneous catalytic processes like hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, and petroleum cracking. Palladium is also essential to the Lindlar catalyst, also called Lindlar's Palladium.[44] A large number of carbon–carbon bonding reactions in organic chemistry
are facilitated by palladium compound catalysts. For example:

When dispersed on conductive materials, palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media.[45] Palladium is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis, used in combination with a broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations.

In 2010 the

Akira Suzuki. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for carbon–fluorine bonds.[46]

Catalytic cycle for Kumada cross coupling reaction, which is widely used in the synthesis of fine chemicals

Palladium catalysis is primarily employed in organic chemistry and industrial applications, although its use is growing as a tool for

nanoparticles was demonstrated in mammals to treat disease.[47]

Electronics

The primary application of palladium in electronics is in

multi-layer ceramic capacitors[48] in which palladium (and palladium-silver alloy) is used for electrodes.[38] Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is or can be used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics[49][50] and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed 1.07 million troy ounces (33 tonnes) of palladium in 2006, according to a Johnson Matthey report.[51]

Technology

Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium,[8] and membrane reactors with Pd membranes are used in the production of high purity hydrogen.[52] Palladium is used in palladium-hydrogen electrodes in electrochemical studies. Palladium(II) chloride readily catalyzes carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide and is useful in carbon monoxide detectors.[53]

Hydrogen storage

Palladium readily

diamagnetic.[57]

Palladium is also used for hydrogen purification via hydrogen-purification membranes.[58]: 183–217 [59]

Dentistry

Palladium is used in small amounts (about 0.5%) in some alloys of

dental amalgam to decrease corrosion and increase the metallic lustre of the final restoration.[60][61]

Jewelry

Palladium has been used as a precious metal in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called "white gold", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require rhodium plating. Palladium, being much less dense than platinum, is similar to gold in that it can be beaten into leaf as thin as 100 nm (1250,000 in).[8] Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above 400 °C (752 °F)[62] due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this, palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.[citation needed]

Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. Palladium is one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold (nickel and silver can also be used).[38] Palladium-gold is more expensive than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel may occur).[63]

When platinum became a strategic resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of palladium. Palladium was little used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of

casting. With the casting problem resolved[64] the use of palladium in jewelry increased, originally because platinum increased in price while the price of palladium decreased.[65] In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices rose steeply, China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry, consuming 37 tonnes in 2005. Subsequent changes in the relative price of platinum lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in 2009.[66][67] Demand for palladium as a catalyst has increased the price of palladium to about 50% higher than that of platinum in January 2019.[68]

In January 2010, hallmarks for palladium were introduced by assay offices in the United Kingdom, and hallmarking became mandatory for all jewelry advertising pure or alloyed palladium. Articles can be marked as 500, 950, or 999 parts of palladium per thousand of the alloy.

Fountain pen nibs made from gold are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver (rather than gold) appearance is desired. Sheaffer has used palladium plating for decades, either as an accent on otherwise gold nibs or covering the gold completely.

Palladium is also used by the luxury brand Hermès as one of the metals plating the hardware on their handbags, most famous of which being Birkin.

Photography

In the

platinotype printing process, photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints using platinum or palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an alternative to silver.[69]

Effects on health

Toxicity

Palladium
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS07: Exclamation mark
Warning
H317
P261, P273, P280, P302+P352, P321, P333+P313, P363, P501[70]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chlorideFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
0
0
0

Palladium is a metal with low toxicity as conventionally measured (e.g.

carcinogenic, though until the recent research cited above, no clear evidence indicated that the element harms humans.[72]

Precautions

Like other

platinum-group metals, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although contact dermatitis has been reported, data on the effects are limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.[73][74][75][76][77]

Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with

palladium chloride, 99% is eliminated from the body within three days.[73]

The

History

William Hyde Wollaston

William Hyde Wollaston noted the

discovery of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in Soho in April 1803. After harsh criticism from Richard Chenevix, who claimed that palladium was an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium alloy.[78] Chenevix received the Copley Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium.[79][80] He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.[78][81]

It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid

palladium(II) cyanide, which was heated to extract palladium metal.[79]

side-effects, and was later replaced by more effective drugs.[82]

Most palladium is used for

troy ounce ($43/g) in January 2001.[84] Around that time, the Ford Motor Company, fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage, stockpiled the metal. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion.[85]

World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to the United States Geological Survey.[32] Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's annexation of Crimea, partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.[86] Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.[87] In September 2014 they soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia managed to maintain stable supplies.[88] In January 2019 palladium futures climbed past $1,344 per ounce for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.[89] Palladium reached $2,024.64 per troy ounce ($65.094/g) on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first time.[90] The price rose above $3,000 per troy ounce in May 2021 and March 2022.[91]

Palladium as investment

troy ounce

Global palladium sales were 8.84 million troy ounces (275 t) in 2017,[92] of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and investment usages.[93] More than 75% of global platinum and 40% of palladium are mined in South Africa. Russia's mining company, Norilsk Nickel, produces another 44% of palladium, with US and Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.

The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021,

Soviet era, at a rate of about 1.6 to 2 million troy ounces (50 to 62 t) a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a state secret
.

During the Russo-Ukrainian War in March 2022, prices for palladium increased 13%, since the first of March. Russia is the primary supplier to Europe and the country supplies 37% of the global production.[96]

Palladium producers

Exchange-traded products

WisdomTree Physical Palladium (LSEPHPD) is backed by allocated palladium bullion and was the world's first palladium ETF. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange as PHPD,[97] Xetra Trading System, Euronext and Milan. ETFS Physical Palladium Shares (NYSEPALL) is an ETF traded on the New York Stock Exchange.

Bullion coins and bars

A traditional way of investing in palladium is buying bullion coins and bars made of palladium. Available palladium coins include the

Chinese Panda, and the American Palladium Eagle. The liquidity of direct palladium bullion investment is poorer than that of gold and silver because there is low circulation of palladium coins.[98]

See also

References

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External links