Arecaceae

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Palm trees
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Arecaceae
Temporal range: 80–0 
Ma
Late Cretaceous – Recent
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Martinique
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Arecales
Family: Arecaceae
nom. cons.[1]
Type genus
Areca
Subfamilies[2]
Diversity
Well over 2600 species in some 202 genera
Synonyms
  • Palmae

The Arecaceae (

habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts
.

Palms are among the best known and most extensively

symbols
for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility.

Etymology

The word Arecaceae is derived from the word areca with the suffix "-aceae". Areca is derived from Portuguese, via Malayalam അടയ്ക്ക (aṭaykka), which is from Dravidian *aṭ-ay-kkāy ("areca nut"). The suffix -aceae is the feminine plural of the Latin -āceus ("resembling").

Morphology

Whether as shrubs, tree-like, or vines, palms have two methods of growth: solitary or clustered. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This

sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members. Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters and vice versa.[6]

Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity.

spathes that become woody at maturity. The flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe (sometimes berry-like)[8] but some genera (e.g., Salacca
) may contain two or more seeds in each fruit.

tree rings
.

Like all

ring-forming trees. However, many palms, like some other monocots, do have secondary growth, although because it does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing xylem inwards and phloem outwards, it is often called "anomalous secondary growth".[10]

The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, and inflorescences.

Raphia spp.) have the largest leaves of any plant, up to 25 metres (82 ft) long and 3 metres (10 ft) wide. The Corypha species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5 metres (25 ft) tall and containing millions of small flowers. Calamus
stems can reach 200 metres (656 ft) in length.

Range and habitat

This grove of the native species Washingtonia filifera in Palm Canyon, just south of Palm Springs, California, is growing alongside a stream running through the desert.

Most palms are native to tropical and subtropical climates. Palms thrive in moist and hot climates but can be found in a variety of different habitats. Their diversity is highest in wet, lowland forests.

Rhopalostylis sapida, which reaches 44°S on the Chatham Islands where an oceanic climate prevails.[13] Cultivation of palms is possible north of subtropical climates, and some higher latitude locales such as Ireland, Scotland, England, and the Pacific Northwest feature a few palms in protected locations and microclimates. In the United States, there are at least 12 native palm species, mostly occurring in the states of the Deep South and Florida.[citation needed
]

Palms inhabit a variety of ecosystems. More than two-thirds of palm species live in humid moist forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the

lime soils, while others are similarly adapted to extreme potassium deficiency and toxicity of heavy metals in serpentine soils.[13]

Taxonomy

Two Roystonea regia specimens. The characteristic crownshaft and apex shoot, or 'spear', are visible.

Palms are a monophyletic group of plants, meaning the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants.[14] Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into 15 major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into 6 subfamilies.[15] A few general traits of each subfamily are listed below.

The Phytelephantoideae is the sixth subfamily of Arecaceae in N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield's 1987 classification. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to 10 joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiple-seeded and have multiple parts. From the modern phylogenomic data, the Phytelephantoideae are tribe in the Ceroxyloideae subfamily.[17]

Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of the Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker et al. explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast

DNA markers, and character polarization.[18] However, hybridization has been observed among Orbignya and Phoenix species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny.[17]

Recently, nuclear genomes and transcriptomes have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of palms. This has revealed, for example, that a whole-genome duplication event occurred early in the evolution of the Arecaceae lineage, that was not experienced by its sister clade, the Dasypogonaceae.[19]

For a phylogenetic tree of the family, see the list of Arecaceae genera.

Selected genera

Silhouette of palms in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Multan, Pakistan
Various Arecaceae
Pair of young Beccariophoenix alfredii
Young Beccariophoenix alfredii
Cuban royal palm
Crown shaft base of Royal palm

Evolution

The Arecaceae were the first modern family of monocots to appear in the fossil record around 80 million years ago (Mya), during the late

petrified palmwood.[citation needed
]

The relationship between the subfamilies is shown in the following cladogram:[citation needed]

Arecaceae

Calamoideae

Nypoideae

Coryphoideae

Ceroxyloideae

Arecoideae

Uses

Arecaceae are common in Saudi Arabia
Palmyra palm fruit at Guntur, India

Human use of palms is at least as old as human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the date palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago.[22] Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites.[23][24] The date palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote:

One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose.[22]

An indication of the importance of palms in ancient times is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible,[25] and at least 22 times in the Quran.[26]

Arecaceae have great economic importance, including coconut products, oils, dates,

species domesticated.[27] This is far higher than almost any other plant family, sixth out of domesticated crops in the human diet, and first in total economic value produced – sharing the top spot with the Poaceae and Fabaceae.[27] These human uses have also spread many Arecaceae species around the world.[27]

Along with dates mentioned above, members of the palm family with human uses are numerous.

Endangered species

Pritchardia affinis, a critically endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands

Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by

rattan palms in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets, as well as biodiversity in the area.[34] The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, as the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. In 2006, at least 100 palm species were considered endangered, and nine species have been reported as recently extinct.[14]

However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of warm habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can rarely house more than a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting.[35] There is also the risk that cross-pollination can lead to hybrid species.

The Palm Specialist Group of the

World Wildlife Fund took place from 1985 to 1990 and 1986–1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia, respectively. Both studies produced copious new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996.[35]

The rarest palm known is Hyophorbe amaricaulis. The only living individual remains at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in Mauritius.

Arthropod pests

Some pests are specialists to particular taxa. Pests that attack a variety of species of palms include:

Symbolism

Edward Hitchcock's fold-out paleontological chart in his 1840 Elementary Geology, showing the Palms as the crown of the plant tree of life, alongside Man as the crown of the animal tree of life.

The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in

Tree of Life in Kabbalah
.

The canopies of the Rathayatra carts which carry the deities of Krishna and his family members in the cart festival of Jagganath Puri in India are marked with the emblem of a palm tree. Specifically it is the symbol of Krishna's brother, Baladeva.[citation needed]

In 1840, the American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864) published the first tree-like paleontology chart in his Elementary Geology, with two separate trees of life for the plants and the animals. These are crowned (graphically) with the Palms and with Man.[40]

Today, the palm, especially the coconut palm, remains a symbol of the tropical island paradise.[14] Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of Haiti, Guam, Saudi Arabia, Florida, and South Carolina.

Palm trees on farm blown by wind.

Other plants

Some species commonly called palms, though they are not true palms, include:

See also

References

Citations

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  3. ^ The name "Palmaceae" is not accepted because the name Arecaceae (and its acceptable alternative Palmae, ICBN Art. 18.5 Archived 2006-05-24 at the Wayback Machine) are conserved over other names for the palm family.
  4. .
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General sources

External links