Arecaceae
Arecaceae Temporal range: Late Cretaceous – Recent
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Coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Martinique | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Arecales |
Family: | Arecaceae nom. cons.[1]
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Type genus | |
Areca | |
Subfamilies[2] | |
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Diversity | |
Well over 2600 species in some 202 genera | |
Synonyms | |
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The Arecaceae (
Palms are among the best known and most extensively
Etymology
The word Arecaceae is derived from the word areca with the suffix "-aceae". Areca is derived from Portuguese, via Malayalam അടയ്ക്ക (aṭaykka), which is from Dravidian *aṭ-ay-kkāy ("areca nut"). The suffix -aceae is the feminine plural of the Latin -āceus ("resembling").
Morphology
Whether as shrubs, tree-like, or vines, palms have two methods of growth: solitary or clustered. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This
Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity.
Like all
The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, and inflorescences. stems can reach 200 metres (656 ft) in length.
Range and habitat
Most palms are native to tropical and subtropical climates. Palms thrive in moist and hot climates but can be found in a variety of different habitats. Their diversity is highest in wet, lowland forests.
Palms inhabit a variety of ecosystems. More than two-thirds of palm species live in humid moist forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the
Taxonomy
Palms are a monophyletic group of plants, meaning the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants.[14] Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into 15 major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into 6 subfamilies.[15] A few general traits of each subfamily are listed below.
- Subfamily Arecoideae are the largest subfamily with 14 tribesand containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers.
- Subfamily synapomorphies) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf-bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary.
- Subfamily Ceroxyloideae has small to medium-sized flowers, spirally arranged, with a gynoecium of three joined carpels.
- Subfamily carpels. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel.
- Subfamily Nypoideae contains only one species, Nypa fruticans,[16]which has large, pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in that it floats, and the stem is underground and dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms.
The Phytelephantoideae is the sixth subfamily of Arecaceae in N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield's 1987 classification. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to 10 joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiple-seeded and have multiple parts. From the modern phylogenomic data, the Phytelephantoideae are tribe in the Ceroxyloideae subfamily.[17]
Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of the Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker et al. explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast
Recently, nuclear genomes and transcriptomes have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of palms. This has revealed, for example, that a whole-genome duplication event occurred early in the evolution of the Arecaceae lineage, that was not experienced by its sister clade, the Dasypogonaceae.[19]
For a phylogenetic tree of the family, see the list of Arecaceae genera.
Selected genera
- Archontophoenix—Bangalow palm
- Areca—Betel palm
- Astrocaryum
- Attalea
- Bactris—Pupunha
- Beccariophoenix—Beccariophoenix alfredii
- Bismarckia—Bismarck palm
- Borassus—Palmyra palm, sugar palm, toddy palm
- Butia
- Calamus—Rattan palm
- Ceroxylon
- Cocos—Coconut
- Coccothrinax
- Copernicia—Carnauba wax palm
- Corypha—Gebang palm, Buri palm or Talipot palm
- Elaeis—Oil palm
- Euterpe—Cabbage heart palm, açaí palm
- Hyphaene—Doum palm
- Jubaea—Chilean wine palm, Coquito palm
- Latania—Latan palm
- Licuala
- Livistona—Cabbage palm
- Moriche palm
- Metroxylon—Sago palm
- Nypa—Nipa palm
- Parajubaea—Bolivian coconut palms
- Phoenix—Date palm
- Pritchardia
- Raphia—Raffia palm
- Rhapidophyllum
- Rhapis
- Roystonea—Royal palm
- Sabal—Palmettos
- Salacca—Salak
- Syagrus—Queen palm
- Thrinax
- Trachycarpus—Windmill palm, Kumaon palm
- Trithrinax
- Manila palm, Joannis palm
- Washingtonia—Fan palm
Evolution
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2016) |
The Arecaceae were the first modern family of monocots to appear in the fossil record around 80 million years ago (Mya), during the late
The relationship between the subfamilies is shown in the following cladogram:[citation needed]
Arecaceae |
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Uses
Human use of palms is at least as old as human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the date palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago.[22] Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites.[23][24] The date palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote:
One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose.[22]
An indication of the importance of palms in ancient times is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible,[25] and at least 22 times in the Quran.[26]
Arecaceae have great economic importance, including coconut products, oils, dates,
Along with dates mentioned above, members of the palm family with human uses are numerous.
- The type member of Arecaceae is the areca palm (Areca catechu), the fruit of which, the areca nut, is chewed with the betel leaf for intoxicating effects.
- Carnaubawax is harvested from the leaves of a Brazilian palm (Copernicia).
- Rattans, whose stems are used extensively in furniture and baskets, are in the genus Calamus.
- oil palms in the genus Elaeis.
- Several species are harvested for heart of palm, a vegetable eaten in salads.
- Sap of the nipa palm, Nypa fruticans, is used to make vinegar.
- Palm fermented to produce palm wine or toddy, an alcoholic beverage common in parts of Africa, India, and the Philippines. The sap may be drunk fresh, but fermentation is rapid, reaching up to 4% alcohol content within an hour, and turning vinegary in a day.[28]
- Palmyra and date palm sap is harvested in Bengal, India, to process into gur and jaggery.
- Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in medicine, varnish, and dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of Daemonorops species.
- Coconut is the partially edible seed of the fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera).
- Coir is a coarse, water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. In India, beekeepers use coir in their bee smokers.
- Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. Moluccas. This is not the same plant commonly used as a house plant and called "sago palm".
- Palm wine is made from Jubaea also called Chilean wine palm, or coquito palm
- Recently, the fruit of the açaí palm Euterpehas been used for its reputed health benefits.
- Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is under investigation as a drug for treating enlarged prostates.
- Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching, basketry, clothing, and in religious ceremonies (see "Symbolism" below).[13]
- Ornamental uses: Today, palms are valuable as Rhapidophyllum hystrix and Sabal minor, both native to the southeastern United States.
- The southeastern U.S. state of Fort Moultrie. During the American Revolutionary War, they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs.[29]
- Singaporean politician Tan Cheng Bock uses a palm tree-like symbol similar to a Ravenala to represent him in the 2011 Singaporean presidential election.[30] The symbol of a party he founded, Progress Singapore Party, was also based on a palm tree.[31]
- On Catholic belief that everyone and everything eventually returns to where it came from, commonly expressed by the saying "ashes to ashes and dust to dust".[32]
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Fruit of the date palmPhoenix dactylifera
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Washingtonia robusta palms line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California.
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Rodeo Palms, a subdivision in Manvel, Texas
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Sabal palm in the Canaveral National Seashore
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Coconut flowers
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Close-up of the top, Atlantic Ocean, Georgia, U.S.
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Palm Tree Orlando Florida
Endangered species
Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by
However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of warm habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can rarely house more than a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting.[35] There is also the risk that cross-pollination can lead to hybrid species.
The Palm Specialist Group of the
The rarest palm known is Hyophorbe amaricaulis. The only living individual remains at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in Mauritius.
Arthropod pests
Some pests are specialists to particular taxa. Pests that attack a variety of species of palms include:
- Raoiella indica, the red palm mite[36]
- Caryobruchus gleditsiae, the palm seed beetle or palm seed weevil[37]
- Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, the red palm weevil, recently introduced to Europe[38][39]
Symbolism
The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in
The canopies of the Rathayatra carts which carry the deities of Krishna and his family members in the cart festival of Jagganath Puri in India are marked with the emblem of a palm tree. Specifically it is the symbol of Krishna's brother, Baladeva.[citation needed]
In 1840, the American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864) published the first tree-like paleontology chart in his Elementary Geology, with two separate trees of life for the plants and the animals. These are crowned (graphically) with the Palms and with Man.[40]
Today, the palm, especially the coconut palm, remains a symbol of the tropical island paradise.[14] Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of Haiti, Guam, Saudi Arabia, Florida, and South Carolina.
Other plants
Some species commonly called palms, though they are not true palms, include:
- Ailanthus altissima (Ghetto palm), a tree in the flowering plant family Simaroubaceae[41]
- Alocasia odora x gageana 'Calidora' (Persian palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae[42]
- Aloe thraskii (Palm aloe), a flowering plant in the family Asphodelaceae[43]
- Amorphophallus konjac (Snake palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae[44]
- Beaucarnea recurvata (Ponytail palm), a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae[45]
- Begonia luxurians (Palm leaf begonia), a flowering plant in the family Begoniaceae[46]
- Biophytum umbraculum (South Pacific palm), a flowering plant in the family Oxalidaceae[47]
- Blechnum appendiculatum (Palm fern), a fern in the family Aspleniaceae[48]
- Brassica oleracea 'Lacinato kale' (Black Tuscan palm), a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae[49]
- Brighamia insignis (Vulcan palm), a flowering plant in the family Campanulaceae[50]
- Carludovica palmata (Panama hat palm)[51] and perhaps other members in the family Cyclanthaceae.
- Cordyline australis[51] (Cabbage palm, Torbay palm, ti palm) or palm lily[51] (family Asparagaceae) and other representatives in the genus Cordyline.
- tree ferns (families Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) that may be confused with palms.
- Cycadales.
- Cyperus alternifolius (Umbrella palm), a sedge in the family Cyperaceae[52]
- Dasylirion longissimum (Grass palm), a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae[53] and other plants in the genus Dasylirion
- Dioon spinulosum (Gum palm), a cycad in the family Zamiaceae[54]
- Dracaena marginata (Dragon palm) a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae[55]
- brown alga in the family Lessoniaceae[56]
- Fatsia japonica (Figleaf palm), a flowering plant in the family Araliaceae[57]
- Hypnodendron comosum (Palm tree moss or palm moss), a moss in the family Hypnodendraceae[58]
- Musa species (Banana palm), a flowering plant in the family Musaceae[59]
- Pachypodium lamerei (Madagascar palm), a flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae[60][61]
- Pandanus spiralis (Screw palm), a flowering plant in the family Pandanaceae[51] and perhaps other Pandanus spp.
- Ravenala (Traveller's palm),[51] a flowering plant in the family Strelitziaceae
- Setaria palmifolia (Palm grass),[51] a grass in the family Poaceae
- Yucca brevifolia (Yucca palm or palm tree yucca)[62]
- Yucca filamentosa (Needle palm)[63] and Yucca filifera (St. Peter's palm),[64] flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae
- Zamia furfuracea (Cardboard palm), a cycad in the family Zamiaceae[65]
- Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Emerald palm or aroid palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae[66]
See also
- Coconut
- Fan palm—genera with palmate leaves
- List of Arecaceae genera
- List of foliage plant diseases (Arecaceae)
- List of hardy palms—palms able to withstand colder temperatures
- brown alga)
References
Citations
- .
- ^ "Arecaceae Bercht. & J. Presl, nom. cons". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2007-04-13. Archived from the original on 2009-08-11. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
- ^ The name "Palmaceae" is not accepted because the name Arecaceae (and its acceptable alternative Palmae, ICBN Art. 18.5 Archived 2006-05-24 at the Wayback Machine) are conserved over other names for the palm family.
- .
- from the original on 2016-07-29.
- ISBN 978-0-935868-30-2.
- ^ "Flowering Plant Families, UH Botany". Botany.hawaii.edu. Archived from the original on Apr 24, 2006.
- ^ Zona, Scott (2000). "Arecaceae". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 22. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2006-05-25 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
- PMID 21652314.
- (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-23.
- ^ "Presidencia de la República". idm.presidencia.gov.co. Archived from the original on Sep 29, 2007.
- .
- ^ a b c "Tropical Palms by Food and Agriculture Organization". Archived from the original on May 6, 2006.
- ^ a b c d "Virtual Palm Encyclopedia – Introduction". Archived from the original on Jul 19, 2006.
- ^ N. W. Uhl, J. Dransfield (1987). Genera palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore, Jr. (Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas).
- ISBN 9780643096158. Archivedfrom the original on February 2, 2014. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ^ a b "Palms on the University of Arizona Campus". Archived from the original on June 21, 2006.
- PMID 11943094.
- )
- ^ "Evolution and the fossil record". Virtual Palm Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on Apr 18, 2006.
- .
- ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
- ^ "Museum Researcher Makes Revealing Discovery". University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Archived from the original on 2004-01-13. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- S2CID 191372053.
- ^ "BibleGateway.com - Keyword Search". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on Mar 10, 2007.
- ^ "The Koran". Quod.lib.umich.edu.
- ^ a b c
- Hufford, Matthew B.; Berny Mier y Teran, Jorge C.; Gepts, Paul (2019-04-29). "Crop Biodiversity: An Unfinished Magnum Opus of Nature". PMID 21712297.
- Hufford, Matthew B.; Berny Mier y Teran, Jorge C.; Gepts, Paul (2019-04-29). "Crop Biodiversity: An Unfinished Magnum Opus of Nature".
- ^ Battcock, Mike; Azam-Ali, Sue. "Chapter Four: Products of Yeast Fermentation". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ "Revolutionary War Exhibit Text" (PDF). November 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 10, 2006.
- ^ See, Sharon (18 August 2011). "PE: Candidates unveil election symbols". Channel News Asia. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
- ^ "PSP can help people take up issues only if voted into Parliament, says Tan Cheng Bock at party launch". The Straits Times. 3 August 2019.
- ^ Lemke, Rebekah (16 January 2019). "3 MUST-KNOW FACTS ABOUT ASH WEDNESDAY". Catholic Relief Services. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
- ^ Rose Kahele (August–September 2007). "Big Island Hearts". Hana Hou!. Vol. 10, no. 4. Archived from the original on 2016-08-26. Retrieved 2016-08-14.
- ISBN 978-2-8317-0352-7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2009-01-14. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
- ^ a b "Palm Conservation: Its Atecedents, Status, and Needs". Archived from the original on Aug 15, 2006.
- ^ "Pest Alerts - Red palm mite, DPI - FDACS". Doacs.state.fl.us. Archived from the original on 2010-12-02. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
- ^ Robert E. Woodruff (1968). "The palm seed "weevil," Caryobruchus gleditsiae (L.) in Florida (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)" (PDF). Entomology Circular. 73: 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24.
- ^ Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Archived 2007-07-23 at the Wayback Machine at North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO)
- ^ Ferry, F.; Gómez, S. (2002). "The Red Palm Weevil in the Mediterranean Area". Palms. 46 (4): 172–178.
- S2CID 16634677.
- ^ "PlantFiles: Ailanthus Species, Chinese Sumac, Ghetto Palm, Stinking Sumac, Tree of Heaven, Varnish Tree". Davesgarden.com. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Alocasia 'Calidora' Elephant's ear Persian palm Care Plant Varieties & Pruning Advice". Shootgardening.co.uk. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Aloe thraskii". Llifle.com. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Amorphophallus konjac Devil's tongue Snake palm Umbrella arum Voodoo lily rivieri mairei Konjaku Konnyaku Care Plant Varieties & Pruning Advice". Shootgardening.co.uk. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "StackPath". Gardeningknowhow.com. 16 February 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Begonia luxurians". Gardenersworld.com. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Biophytum umbraculum" at the Encyclopedia of Life
- ^ "Blechnum appendiculatum (palm fern)". Cabi.org. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
- ^ "Why Black Tuscan Kale (Cavolo Nero) is Good for You". Heal with food. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Gardens: all hail the vulcan palm". The Guardian. 10 January 2016.
- ^ ISBN 92-5-104213-6
- ^ "How to Plant & Grow Umbrella Palm (Cyperus alternifolius)". Pondinformer.com. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Dealing with drought". Gainescille.com.
- ^ "Dioon spinulosum (Giant Dioon)". Gardenia.net. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Trimming the Dracaena Dragon Palm". Homeguide.sfgate. 6 June 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "SIMoN :: Species Database". Sanctuarysimon.org. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Fatsia japonica (Big-leaf paper plant, Figleaf Palm, Formosa rice tree, Glossy-Leaved Paper Plant, Japanese Aralia, Japanese Fatsia, Paper Plant) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox". Plants.ces.ncsu.edu. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Palm Tree Moss - Hypnodendron comosum - by Patomarazul - JungleDragon". Jungledragon.com. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Banana Palm Tree".
- ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Pachypodium lamerei". Retrieved 16 January 2021.
- ^ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Rhs.org.uk. July 2017. p. 70. Retrieved 14 April 2018.
- ^ "Yucca brevifolia (Joshua Tree)". Gardenia.net. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Yucca filamentosa (Adam's Needle)". Gardenia.net. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "Yucca filifera | St. Peter's palm Conservatory Greenhouse/RHS Gardening". Rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ "What Is A Zamia Cardboard Palm: Tips On Growing Cardboard Palms". Gardeningknowhow.com. 24 December 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ "Zamioculcas, a survivor plant born eons ago - and perfect for the home!". Nature-and-garden.com. 2 December 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
General sources
- Dransfield, J.; Uhl, N. W.; Asmussen, C. B.; Baker, W. J.; Harley, M. M.; Lewis, C. E. (January 2005). "A new phylogenetic classification of the palm family, Arecaceae". Kew Bulletin. 60 (4): 559–569. (Latest Arecaceae or Palmae classification.)
- Hahn, William J. (2002). "A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of the Palmae (Arecaceae) Based on atpB, rbcL, and 18S nrDNA Sequences". Systematic Biology. 51 (1): 92–112. PMID 11943094.
- Schultz-Schultzenstein, C. H. (1832). Natürliches System des Pflanzenreichs..., p. 317. Berlin, Germany. (in German)
External links
- Palmpedia—A wiki-based site dedicated to high quality images and information on palm trees.
- Fairchild Guide to Palms—A collection of palm images, scientific data, and horticultural information hosted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami.
- Kew Botanic Garden's Palm Genera list—A list of the currently acknowledged genera by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens in London, England (archived 2007)
- Palm species listing with images—Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia (PACSOA)
- Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, Inc. (PACSOF), which includes pages on Arecaceae taxonomy and a photo index.
- Sterken, Peter (2008). "The Elastic Stability of Palms" (PDF). Plant Science Bulletin. 54 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2008.
- Palmaceae in the BoDD—Botanical Dermatology Database