Palmyra Atoll
Palmyra Atoll | |
---|---|
Territory of Palmyra Island | |
Sovereign state | United States |
Annexed by the United States | June 14, 1900 |
Named for | U.S. trading ship Palmyra |
Government | National Wildlife Refuge |
• Administered by | United States Fish and Wildlife Service |
• Superintendent | Laura Beauregard, Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument |
Area | |
• Land | 11.9 km2 (4.6 sq mi) |
• Water | 0 km2 (0 sq mi) |
Dimensions | |
• Length | 4.7 km (2.9 mi) |
• Width | 6.8 km (4.2 mi) |
Elevation | 2.1 m (7 ft) |
Highest elevation (Sand Island) | 10 m (30 ft) |
Lowest elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
Population | |
• 2019 estimate | 4–20 staff and scientists |
Currency | United States dollar (US$) (USD) |
Time zone | UTC−11:00 (SST) |
ISO 3166 code | |
Internet TLD | .us |
Designated | 2001 |
Official name | Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge |
Designated | April 1, 2011 |
Reference no. | 1971[1] |
Palmyra Atoll (/pælˈmaɪrə/), also referred to as Palmyra Island, is one of the Northern Line Islands (southeast of Kingman Reef and north of Kiribati). It is located almost due south of the Hawaiian Islands, roughly one-third of the way between Hawaii and American Samoa. North America is about 3,300 miles (5,300 kilometers) northeast and New Zealand the same distance southwest, placing the atoll at the approximate center of the Pacific Ocean. The land area is 4.6 sq mi (12 km2), with about 9 miles (14 km) of sea-facing coastline and reef. There is one boat anchorage, known as West Lagoon, accessible from the sea by a narrow artificial channel and an old airstrip; during WW2 it was turned into Naval Air Station for several years and used for training and refueling. It was shelled by a submarine in December 1941, but was not the site of a major battle.
It is the second northernmost of the Line Islands and one of three American islands in the archipelago, along with Jarvis Island and Kingman Reef. Palmyra Atoll is part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, the world's largest marine protected area. The atoll comprises submerged sand flats along with dry land and reefs. It comprises three lagoons separated by coral reefs. The western reef terrace is one of the biggest shelf-reefs, with dimensions of 2 by 3 miles (3.2 by 4.8 km). Over 150 species of coral inhabit Palmyra Atoll, double the number recorded in Hawaii.[2]
Palmyra Atoll has no permanent population. It is administered as an
Geography
The atoll consists of an extensive reef, three shallow lagoons, and a number of sand and reef-rock islets and bars covered with vegetation—mostly coconut palms, Scaevola, and tall Pisonia trees.
Many of the islets are connected. Sand Island and the two Home Islets in the west; Quail, Whippoorwill, and Bunker Islands in the north; and Eastern, Fern, Bird and Barren Islands in the east are not. The largest island is Cooper Island in the north, followed by Kaula Island in the south. The northern arch of islets is formed by Strawn Island, Cooper Island (or Cooper-Meng Island since the original Cooper and Meng Islands were joined in 1940), Aviation Island, Quail Island, Whippoorwill Island, Bunker Island, followed in the east by Eastern Island, Papala Island and Pelican Island, and in the south by Bird Island, Holei Island, Engineer Island, Tanager Island, Marine Island, Kaula Island, Paradise Island, the Home Islets, and Sand Island (clockwise).
Palmyra Atoll is in the Samoa Time Zone (UTC−11:00), the same time zone as American Samoa, Midway Atoll, Kingman Reef and Jarvis Island.
-
Palmyra Atoll, 2010 satellite image
-
Coconut palms on Strawn Island at Palmyra Atoll
Incorporated in the United States
In
Climate
Average annual rainfall is approximately 175 in (4,400 mm) per year. Temperatures average 85 °F (29 °C) year round. The atoll has nearly the highest oceanicity index (i.e. degree to which its climate is affected by the sea) and one of the lowest diurnal and annual temperature variation of any place on earth. Nauru has more consistent nighttime temperatures with every month recording 77 °F (25 C) average, as well as more evenly spread precipitation.
Climate data for Palmyra Atoll | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 28.9 (84.0) |
28.3 (83.0) |
28.9 (84.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
30.0 (86.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.4 (85.0) |
29.3 (84.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 26.7 (80.0) |
26.1 (79.0) |
26.7 (80.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
26.7 (80.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
26.7 (80.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
26.9 (80.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 24.4 (76.0) |
23.9 (75.0) |
24.4 (76.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
24.4 (76.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
24.4 (76.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
24.7 (76.5) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 340 (13.3) |
220 (8.5) |
250 (9.8) |
190 (7.3) |
310 (12.1) |
420 (16.6) |
430 (17.1) |
510 (20.1) |
280 (10.9) |
250 (10.0) |
360 (14.3) |
520 (20.3) |
4,080 (160.3) |
Average rainy days | 14.5 | 12.3 | 15.3 | 11.8 | 17.2 | 17.9 | 20.2 | 19.8 | 13.6 | 14.3 | 14.5 | 16.5 | 187.9 |
Source: Weatherbase.com[8] |
Official names
Although Palmyra is a
Political status
Palmyra is an
The issue of governance is generally a moot point since no permanent population lives there. Cooper Island and ten other land parcels in this atoll are owned by
Palmyra land was registered in
Economy
The only current economic activity on Palmyra is paid
Airport
Palmyra (Cooper) Airport (
Preliminary surveys were made by the U.S. Navy in 1938 for an airfield at this location. The first Navy group to begin construction sailed from Honolulu on November 14, 1939. The runway was made from crushed coral and expanded during
The airstrip still exists today but can only be used after prior permission has been obtained or in case of emergency.[26]
History
Discovery
The first known sighting of Palmyra came in 1798 aboard the American
On November 7, 1802, the ship Palmyra, under Captain Cornelius Sowle (sometimes spelled "Sawle"), was shipwrecked on the reef, which took the vessel's name.
There are no inhabitants on the island, nor was any fresh water found; but cocoanuts [sic] of a very large size, are in great abundance; and fish of various kinds and in large shoals surround the land.[33][9]
Esperanza treasure
During the 19th and 20th centuries, stories circulated in the Pacific of a large treasure of gold, silver and precious stones (sometimes described as Inca treasures) that had been looted in the Viceroyalty of Peru.[34] A crew loaded it in secret onto the ship Esperanza in Callao harbor, Peru, and embarked into the Pacific Ocean on January 1, 1816, bound for the Spanish West Indies.
According to a survivor, seaman James Hines, the Esperanza was caught in a storm that
After 43 days, the pirates' ship met a storm, lost course, and struck the coral reef surrounding Palmyra Island, breaking the mast. The 90 men aboard were able to pull the ship closer to land, but it was not serviceable. They offloaded the treasure to the island, distributed some, and buried the rest. They repaired part of their boat and most of the crew shipped away, not to be heard from again. The remaining ten men spent most of a year on Palmyra living on dwindling stores and local food. They spent three months building a small escape boat, upon which six men left Palmyra. Of these, four were washed overboard in a storm and the other two were rescued by an American whaler bound for San Francisco. One died en route. The survivor, James Hines, was put in a hospital, but he died 30 days later.
Before Hines died, he wrote letters describing the affair and the location of the treasure, which originally included 1.5 million Spanish gold pesos and an equal value in silver (possibly consisting of
The legend of the Esperanza and Santa Rosa (a ship rumored to have recovered the Esperanza treasure and sailed back to Honolulu) inspired a
American visits
The atoll was visited by the USS Porpoise in 1842 as part of the United States Exploring Expedition, led by Charles Wilkes. This marked the first visit to Palmyra by a scientific expedition. Various live samples of native plants and animals were collected. In his 23rd volume recording the findings of the USXX, Wilkes wrote of Palmyra, mentioning some unspecified inhabitants at that time:
This island is inhabited ... It is to be regretted that all these detached islands should not be visited by our national vessels, and friendly intercourse kept up with them. The benefit and assistance that any shipwrecked mariners might derive from their rude inhabitants, would repay the time, trouble, and expense such visits would occasion.[41]
In 1859, Palmyra Atoll was claimed for the United States both by Alfred Benson and by Dr. Gerrit P. Judd of the brig Josephine, in accordance with the Guano Islands Act of 1856, but no guano was there to be mined, so the claims were abandoned.[42]
Annexation by the Kingdom of Hawaii (1862)
On February 26, 1862, King
Over the next century, ownership passed through various hands. Bent sold his rights to Wilkinson on December 25, 1862. Palmyra later passed to Kalama Wilkinson (Johnson's widow). In 1885, it was divided among her four heirs,
A further Wilkinson heir left her share to her son William Ringer Sr., who also bought his great-uncle's share, giving Ringer a one-third undivided share as a
Meanwhile, in 1889, Commander Nichols of HMS Cormorant claimed Palmyra for the United Kingdom, unaware of the prior claim made by Hawaii.[48]
Part of the U.S. Territory of Hawaii (1900–1959)
In 1898, the United States by the Newlands Resolution annexed the Republic of Hawaii, formerly the Provisional Government of Hawaii, and Palmyra with it. An Act of Congress made all of Hawaii, including Palmyra, into an "incorporated territory" of the United States at that time. (Act of April 30, 1900, ch. 339, §§ 4–5.) On June 14, 1900, Palmyra became part of the new U.S. Territory of Hawaii.[43]
With the imminent opening of the Panama Canal, Palmyra became strategically important. Britain had established a submarine cable station for the All Red Line on nearby Fanning Island.[49] The U.S. Navy sent USS West Virginia to Palmyra, where on February 21, 1912, American sovereignty was formally reaffirmed.[43]
William Ringer Sr. died in 1909, survived by his wife and three minor daughters. In 1912,
Cooper visited the island in July 1913 with scientists
In September 1921, as part of a national push to better document the coastal and outlying areas owned by the United States, a small naval detachment was sent to Palmyra to conduct the first aerial surveys of the atoll. The events of that trip were recorded by a naval
During our visit the weather was delightful. The detachment remained at these islands two days and they were perfect for flying, affording an opportunity to take wonderful aerial pictures. The commanding officer and the aviators made a number of flights and the official photographer was in his element.
At the time, Palmyra was occupied by three Americans: Colonel William Meng, his wife, and Edwin Benner Jr.[53] While there, the USS Eagle Boat 40, which had transported aircraft and photographic equipment to the islands, made a very rare exception to naval regulation and took aboard the wife, Mrs. Meng, to return her to Honolulu for medical aid as she was not handling the isolation and trying physical conditions of Palmyra well.[54]
On August 19, 1922, Cooper sold his interest in the atoll except two minor islets to Leslie and Ellen Fullard-Leo for $15,000 (equivalent to $273,042 in 2023). They established the Palmyra Copra Company to harvest the coconuts growing on the atoll. Their three sons, including actor Leslie Vincent, continued as the owners afterwards, subject to a period of military administration and construction by the Navy before and during World War II from 1939 through 1945. In 2000, The Nature Conservancy acquired the majority of Palmyra Atoll from the Fullard-Leo family for $30 million (equivalent to $53,078,261 in 2023).[55]
Palmyra was turned into military base at the start of WW2 in the Pacific, after some legal questions were resolved. The island was fortified when it found itself on the front lines of Pacific, due to losses of US territories to the west. It was shelled once early in the war, but due to US military success it ended being used for refueling and training. After WW2 it was returned to private ownership and the naval base was mostly demolished.
Background
A number of memoirs, reports and unofficial documents in the decades since World War II, have stated Palmyra was placed under naval jurisdiction in 1934, as part of
Starting in 1937, the Fullard-Leo family began attempts to lease Palmyra to the U.S. Navy. During negotiations, the government filed a
In July 1938, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes wrote a letter to President Roosevelt, imploring him not to turn Palmyra over to the US Navy for use as a military base. Quoting his letter, he writes,
... the Navy Department has plans for the acquisition and development of the island as an air base. Our representatives have studied conditions at Palmyra and other islands in the south Pacific, and they report that use of this small land area as an air base for Navy Department purposes would undoubtedly destroy much, if not all, that makes the island one of our most scientifically and scenically unique possessions.
The letter was unsuccessful, and plans for the base proceeded.[60]
On February 14, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defenses areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established "Palmyra Island Naval Defensive Sea Area" which encompassed the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Palmyra Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Palmyra Atoll unless authorized by the Secretary of the Navy. The Navy took over the atoll for use as the
Pacific war
In December 1941 the Empire of Japan declared war on the United States and Great Britain, and launched attacks and launched invasions across Asia and the Pacific, plunging the United States into
Although the U.S. lost control of the Philippines, Guam, and Wake, early in the war, the tide of the Pacific battle was slowly turned with such battles as the Battle of Midway and Guadalcanal. By 1944 much of the Southwest Pacific was in Allied control, and combination of island hopping and strategic bombing lead the Japanese surrender in 1945.[65] During the war Palmyra base was used by the Navy for training and for refueling.[66][67] The atoll was extensively developed which reduced the numbers of islets from 52 to 25.[67]
In the lobby of the "Transient Hotel" (built by the
In 1947, the base was returned to private ownership after a court case with the Federal government.[67]
After World War II, much of the Naval Air Station was demolished, with some of the materials piled up and burned on the atoll, dumped into the lagoon, or in the case of unexploded ordnance on some islets, left in place.[69] Compared to other bases little is known about the operations at Palmyra during WW2, although it is known that the island was extensively modified.[67]
U.S. Territory of Palmyra Island (1959–present)
When Hawaii was admitted to the United States in 1959, Palmyra was explicitly separated from the new state,
In 1962, the Department of Defense used Palmyra as an observation site during several high-altitude nuclear weapons tests high above Johnston Atoll. A group of about ten men supported the observation posts during this series of tests, while about 40 people carried out the observations.[72]
Alby Mangels, the Australian adventurer and documentary filmmaker of World Safari, visited the atoll during his six-year trip in the 1970s.[73]
In early 1979, the US government began exploring the idea of storing
Sea Wind murder
In 1974, Palmyra was the site of a murder, and possible double murder, of a wealthy San Diego couple, Malcolm "Mac" Graham and his wife, Eleanor "Muff" Graham.[76] The mysterious deaths, including the murder conviction of Duane ("Buck") Walker (a.k.a. Wesley G. Walker) for Eleanor Graham's murder, and the acquittal of his girlfriend, Stephanie Stearns, made headlines worldwide, and became the subject of a true crime book, And the Sea Will Tell, written by Bruce Henderson and Vincent Bugliosi, Stearns's defense attorney. The book led to a CBS television miniseries of the same name, starring James Brolin, Rachel Ward, Deidre Hall, and Hart Bochner; Richard Crenna played lawyer Bugliosi. The story was retold in The FBI Files.
Walker and Stearns were arrested in Honolulu in 1974 after returning from Palmyra aboard Sea Wind, the yacht stolen from the Grahams. Because no bodies were found at the time, Walker and Stearns were convicted only for the theft of the yacht. Six years later, a partially-buried, corroded chest was found in a lagoon at Palmyra, containing Eleanor Graham's remains. Walker and Stearns were arrested in Arizona for murder, and Walker was convicted in 1985. Stearns was acquitted in 1986 after her defense argued that Walker had committed the murders without Stearns's knowledge. Because no body or other evidence of Malcolm Graham's death has been discovered, his murder was never formally alleged.
Walker served 22 years in the United States Penitentiary, Victorville, California before receiving parole in 2007. He wrote an 895-page book about his experiences, and life on Palmyra Island, in which he denied killing Eleanor Graham. It states they had sexual relations, her husband Malcolm Graham caught them and shot at them in anger, inadvertently killing her. Walker said that the two men had a gunfight the next day, and that Malcolm Graham consequently died from a rifle wound.
Walker accused author Vincent Bugliosi – Stearns' lawyer – of
Sovereignty challenges (1997–1999)
In the late 1990s, Rachel Lahela Kekoa Bolt, a
National Wildlife Refuge and National Monument
In December 2000,
On January 18, 2001, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt issued Secretary's Order No. 3224 designating Palmyra's tidal lands, submerged lands and surrounding waters out to 12 nautical miles (22 km) from the water's edge as a National Wildlife Refuge.Palmyra Atoll Subsequently, the Department of the Interior published a regulation providing for the management of the refuge. 66 Fed. Reg. 7660-01 (January 24, 2001). The pertinent part of the regulation states:
We will close the refuge to commercial fishing but will permit a low level of compatible recreational fishing for bonefishing and deep water sportfishing under programs that we will carefully manage to ensure compatibility with refuge purposes. ... Management actions will include protection of the refuge waters and wildlife from commercial fishing activities.
In March 2003, TNC conveyed 416 acres (1.68 km2) of the emergent land of Palmyra to the United States to be included in the refuge. In 2005, it added 28 acres to the conveyance. TNC and
The conveyance to TNC from the Fullard-Leos in 2000 was subject to a preexisting commercial fishing license. Then in 2001 the
In November 2005, TNC established a new research station on Palmyra to study
The
Conservation and restoration
In 2011, Fish and Wildlife Service, TNC and Island Conservation began an extensive program to eradicate the horde of non-native rats that had arrived on Palmyra during World War II. As many as 30,000 rats once roamed the atoll, eating the eggs of native seabirds and destroying the seedlings of one of the largest remaining Pacific stands of Pisonia grandis trees. The rats were eliminated in 2012; however, fifty-one animal samples representing 15 species of birds, fish, reptiles and invertebrates were collected for residue analysis during systematic searches or as nontarget mortalities. Brodifacoum residues (the toxicant employed during the project) were detected in most (84.3%) of the samples analyzed with unknown long-term and sublethal effects.[87][88][89] One side effect was the demise of the island's population of Asian tiger mosquitoes. This was claimed to be the first time that killing off one unwanted species resulted in the removal of a second unwanted species. The other mosquito species on the island, Culex quinquefasciatus, has a preference for feeding on birds and was not affected by the elimination of rats.[90][91]
Post-rat-eradication monitoring documented a notable
Beginning in 2019, TNC worked in partnership with Island Conservation and the Fish and Wildlife Service to restore the native rainforest at Palmyra Atoll by removing dominant C. nucifera coconut palms, which the conservancy says are the result of former copra plantations and military activity. Other trees provide habitat for 11 seabird species, and the conservancy wrote that their re-establishment across the atoll would encourage coral growth and might lessen the local impact of a rise in sea-level. As of December 2019, half a million coconut sprouts had been removed, and tracking begun of the ecosystem's response.[94]
Palmyra Atoll's location in the Pacific Ocean, where the southern and northern currents meet, litters its beaches with trash and debris. Plastic mooring buoys and plastic bottles are plentiful.[95]
The atoll is dominated by the coconut crab, the largest species of terrestrial invertebrate.[96]
To avoid introducing any new invasive species, visitors to the atoll freeze and disinfect their belongings.[97][98]
Tourism
Tourists are allowed to visit Palmyra Atoll (unlike most of the U.S. minor outlying islands, which are closed to the public). However, Palmyra Atoll is so difficult to access that few visit. Visitors must obtain prior approval from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or The Nature Conservancy.[99] A statement by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is as follows:
"Public access to Palmyra Atoll is self-limiting due to the very high expense of traveling to such a remote destination. The Nature Conservancy owns and operates the only airplane runway on Palmyra, and by boat it's a 5–7 day sailing trip from Honolulu. There are four ways the public may gain access to the refuge: (1) Working for, contracting with, or volunteering for The Nature Conservancy or Fish and Wildlife Service; (2) Conducting scientific research via Fish and Wildlife Service Special Use Permits; (3) Invitation through The Nature Conservancy sponsored donor trip; (4) Visitation by private recreational sailboat or motorboat."[99]
Amateur radio (DX) visitors
Since the 1940s, Palmyra's most consistent visitors have been members of
In June 1974 the KP6PA DXpedition team helped rescue a couple whose ship had run aground on the reefs. The man, Buck Walker, was later convicted of homicide in the much publicized Sea Wind murder case.[101] Two members of the 1980 team were injured severely enough to need an airlift back to Honolulu. The first incident resulted from injuries sustained in a plane crash as their pilot underestimated wind conditions and the poor state of the landing strip. The second injury, to a surgeon, happened when he fell and cut his hands on broken glass. The surgeon then sued the atoll's owners, as he was no longer able to practice surgery, and the atoll was closed to visitors for most of the 1980s while cleanup activities were undertaken.[102]
See also
References
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{{cite encyclopedia}}
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Further reading
- Bruce B. Henderson (1991/1992), And the Sea Will Tell, reprint, New York: Ballantine Books.
External links
- Palmyra Atoll photo gallery by FWS