Pan-Mongolism

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Regions commonly associated with Mongol irredentism
Concentrations of Mongolic peoples (red) compared to the extent of the Mongol Empire (outlined in orange)

Pan-Mongolism is an

irredentist idea that advocates cultural and political solidarity of Mongols.[1][2] The proposed territory, called "Greater Mongolia" (Mongolian: Даяар Монгол, Dayaar Mongol) or "Whole Mongolia" (Хамаг Монгол) usually includes the independent state of Mongolia,[3] the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia, and the Russian region of Buryatia.[4] Sometimes the autonomous republic Tuva, the Altai Republic and parts of Xinjiang, Zabaykalsky Krai, and Irkutsk Oblast are included as well.[5] As of 2006, all areas in Greater Mongolia (or Mongol heartland) except Mongolia have non-Mongol majorities.[4]

The nationalist movement emerged in the 20th century in response to the

Mongolian Revolution
ended Communist rule in Mongolia, a number of organizations have emerged that promote pan-Mongolism, but they have little popular support.

History

Early 20th century

The

Amur Basin in 1862, the Imperial Russian government pursued policies in support of a "long-range expansionist policy intended to one day strip control of Mongolia away from China".[9]

At the turn of the 20th century, the Qing, reasoning that the Russians would have a harder time annexing territory settled by many Han people, reduced its many restrictions on Han settlement within Qing territory. This policy spurred an anti-Chinese Greater Mongolia nationalism among a few Mongols.[9]

In 1911, Mongolia

Bogd Khaganate
.

When the Qing dynasty

Ulan Bator and persuaded Russia to defend Mongol autonomy within China. The Russians understood this autonomy to apply only in Outer Mongolia, but the princes interpreted it as sanctifying a Greater Mongolia of Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Eastern Mongolia, and Tannu Uriankhai (Tuva).[13]

The Inner Mongolian prince

autonomous government in Ulaanbaatar about the possibility of a Greater Mongolia. They found that they had sharp disagreements about such a state, owing to the Inner Mongols' agricultural lifestyle and orientation towards China, contrasted with the Outer Mongols' nomadic lifestyle and orientation towards Russia.[6]

Mongols have at times advocated for the historical Oirat Dzungar Mongol area of Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang, to be annexed to the Mongolian state in the name of Pan-Mongolism.

Legends grew among the remaining Oirats that Amursana had not died after he fled to Russia, but was alive and would return to his people to liberate them from Manchu Qing rule and restore the Oirat nation. Prophecies had been circulating about the return of Amursana and the revival of the Oirats in the Altai region.[14][15] The Oirat Kalmyk Ja Lama claimed to be a grandson of Amursana and then claimed to be a reincarnation of Amursana himself, preaching anti-Manchu propaganda in western Mongolia in the 1890s and calling for the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.[16] Ja Lama was arrested and deported several times. However, he returned to the Oirat Torghuts in Altay (in Dzungaria) in 1910 and in 1912 he helped the Outer Mongolians mount an attack on the last Qing garrison at Kovd, where the Manchu Amban was refusing to leave and fighting the newly declared independent Mongolian state.[17][18][19][20][21][22] The Manchu Qing force was defeated and slaughtered by the Mongols after Khovd fell.[23][24]

Ja Lama told the Oirat remnants in Xinjiang: "I am a mendicant monk from the Russian Tsar's kingdom, but I am born of the great Mongols. My herds are on the Volga river, my water source is the Irtysh. There are many hero warriors with me. I have many riches. Now I have come to meet with you beggars, you remnants of the Oirats, in the time when the war for power begins. Will you support the enemy? My homeland is Altai, Irtysh, Khobuk-sari, Emil, Bortala, Ili, and Alatai. This is the Oirat mother country. By descent, I am the great-grandson of Amursana, the reincarnation of Mahakala, owning the horse Maralbashi. I am he whom they call the hero Dambijantsan. I came to move my pastures back to my own land, to collect my subject households and bondservants, to give favour, and to move freely."[25][26]

Ja Lama built an Oirat fiefdom centered around Kovd,[27] he and fellow Oirats from Altai wanted to emulate the original Oirat empire and build another grand united Oirat nation from the nomads of western China and Mongolia,[28] but was arrested by Russian Cossacks and deported in 1914 on the request of the Mongolian government after the local Mongols complained of his excesses, and out of fear that he would create an Oirat separatist state and divide them from the Khalkha Mongols.[29] Ja Lama returned in 1918 to Mongolia and resumed his activities and supported himself by extorting passing caravans,[30][31][32] but was assassinated in 1922 on the orders of the new Communist Mongolian authorities under Damdin Sükhbaatar.[33][34][35]

The part Buryat Mongol Transbaikalian Cossack Ataman Grigory Semyonov declared a "Great Mongol State" in 1918 and had designs to unify the Oirat Mongol lands, portions of Xinjiang, Transbaikal, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Tannu Uriankhai, Khovd, Hu-lun-pei-erh and Tibet into one Mongolian state.[36]

From 1919 to 1921, a Chinese army led by Xu Shuzheng occupied Outer Mongolia.[37] This period ended when White Russian General Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg protected independence of Mongolia, who deported the Chinese occupation army from Outer Mongolia[38] The Han percentage of the industrial labor force dropped from 63 percent to 10 percent in 1932.[39]

World War II

The

vigilantes who attempted to ethnically cleanse the Han Chinese from Inner and Eastern Mongolia;[12][verification needed] many failed rebel leaders fled to Outer Mongolia.[7] After the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, the Japanese installed the puppet Mengjiang government in Inner Mongolia, and Manchukuo to include Eastern Mongolia. Imperial Japanese policy flirted with pan-Mongolism as a weapon against the Chinese,[3] but it maintained the traditional Chinese political divisions of the Mongols, as its main focus was to promote Japanese, rather than Mongolian, language and culture.[42] During the Japanese occupation, Soviet–Japanese border conflicts pit Mongols on either side of the Sino-Mongolian border against one another, and according to one scholar "finalized the permanent separation of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia".[43]: 14  Nonetheless, war propaganda by the Soviet Union and Outer Mongolia encouraged Inner and Eastern Mongolians to fight against the Japanese to create a Greater Mongolia.[7] Prince Demchugdongrub, operating from Eastern Mongolia, was a supporter of Pan-Mongolism and a Japanese collaborator.[44][45]

In 1943, the British

Pei-ta-shan Incident.[39]

1949–90

The

Kalmyk instead of Kalmyk-Mongol, China encouraged its Mongols to deemphasize their tribal and local identities and to identify simply as "Mongol".[43]: 182  The Mongolian communist government promoted the idea that all Mongols should be assimilated to the Khalkha subgroup, rejecting the idea of an inclusive Greater Mongolia state as disloyal to Mongolia.[43]
: 136 

China designed the entire

Mongol conquests.[48][49] The Sino-Soviet split from 1960 led Mongolia to align with the power they perceived as less threatening, i.e. the USSR, and to publish provocative pan-Mongol pieces in the Mongolian state press. During the 1980s, China-Mongolia relations improved with the exchange of Mongolian wrestling teams and Mikhail Gorbachev's pledge to withdraw Soviet troops from Mongolia.[39]

1990–present

Further information: Inner Mongolian independence movement

After the

Khalkha Mongols as the most racially pure Mongols ("Khalkha-centrism"), looking down on the Buryat and Inner Mongols as Russian and Chinese "half-breeds", respectively.[43]: 137  The third criticism noted that the political power of those within the current borders of Mongolia would be diluted in a Greater Mongolia.[51] Khalkha centric nationalists discriminate against Oirat and Buryats from Russia and Inner Mongols from China, viewing them as agents of Russia and China respectively.[52][53][54][55]

In 1994, China and Mongolia signed a treaty wherein both promised to respect each other's

Chinese Communist Party explicitly repudiated and condemned the idea of a Greater Mongolia, citing the threat to China's unity and the likely dominance of Mongolia in such a union.[3] Because of the existence of an independent Mongolian state, Inner Mongols have generally not aspired to an independent state of their own, and what little separatist sentiment in Inner Mongolia aspires to union with independent Mongolia.[43]: 3  The feelings are not reciprocated, as the history and geography of China are not taught in Mongolian schools, and knowledge of the Inner Mongols in Mongolia is low.[43]: 183 Similarly to the Inner Mongolian government, high-ranking Buryat officials have reacted to the Greater Mongolia idea by rejecting that Buryats are Mongols at all.[43]: 178  Since the normalization of Sino-Mongolian relations in 1994, the Mongolian government does not support Greater Mongolian nationalism, but it tolerates organizations in Mongolia which do, such as the Mongolian newspaper Il Tovchuu.[56]
Various small organizations in Mongolia advocate a Greater Mongolia. [39]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Kaplonski, Christopher (2004). Truth, History, and Politics in Mongolia. Psychology Press. p. 15.
  2. ^ Black, Cyril; Dupree, Louis; Endicott-West, Elizabeth; Naby, Eden (1991). The Modernization of Inner Asia. M.E. Sharpe. p. 193.
  3. ^ a b c d Hodder, Dick; Lloyd, Sarah; McLachlan, Keith (1998). Land-locked States of Africa and Asia. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 150.
  4. ^ a b Steiner-Khamsi, Gita; Stolpe, Ines (2006). Educational Import: Local Encounters with Global Forces in Mongolia. Macmillan. p. 12.
  5. ^
    Brookings Institution Press
    . p. 670.
  6. ^ a b Adle, Chahryar; Palat, Madhavan; Tabyshalieva, Anara (2005). Towards the Contemporary Period: From the Mid-nineteenth to the End of the Twentieth Century. Vol. 6. UNESCO. p. 361.
  7. ^ a b c d e Rosinger, Lawrence (1971). The State of Asia: A Contemporary Survey. Ayer Publishing. pp. 103–105, 108.
  8. ^ a b Miller, Alekseĭ; Rieber, Alfred (2004). Imperial Rule. Central European University Press. p. 197.
  9. ^ a b c Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce (2000). "Sino-Russian Competition over Outer Mongolia". Mongolia in the Twentieth Century. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 28, 30.
  10. ^ Hudgins, Sharon (2004). The Other Side of Russia: A Slice of Life in Siberia and the Russian Far East. Texas A&M University Press. p. 126.
  11. ^ Tachibana, M. Inner Mongolia in the Mongol history of the 20th century: on the number of khoshuuns recognized Mongolian subjection. In: Mongolyn Tusgaar Togtnol ba Mongolchuud. Ulaanbaatar, 2012, p. 271 (in Mongolian)
  12. ^ a b c Esherick, Joseph; Kayalı, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 246, 249–251.
  13. ^ Paine, S. C. M. (1996). Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier. M.E. Sharpe. p. 301.
  14. ^ Znamenski 2011, pp. 27, 28, 29.
  15. ^ Universität Bonn. Ostasiatische Seminar 1982. p. 164.
  16. ^ Lattimore & Nachukdorji 1955, p. 57.
  17. ^ Croner 2009, p. 11.
  18. ^ Croner 2010, p. 11.
  19. ^ Pegg 2001, p. 268.
  20. ^ ed. Sinor 1990, p. 5.
  21. ^ Baabar 1999, p. 139.
  22. ^ Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn Baabar 1999, p. 139.
  23. ^ Mongolia Society 1970, p. 17.
  24. ^ Mongolia Society 1970, p. 17.
  25. ^ Perdue 2009, p. 493.
  26. ^ Palmer 2011, p. 59.
  27. ^ Dupree & Naby 1994, p. 55.
  28. ^ Znamenski 2011, p. 40.
  29. ^ Znamenski 2011, p. 41.
  30. ^ Andreyev 2003, p. 139.
  31. ^ Andreyev 2014, p. 285,
  32. ^ Znamenski 2011, p. 138.
  33. ^ Znamenski 2011, p. 141.
  34. ^ Sanders 2010, p. 188.
  35. ^ Morozova 2009, p. 39.
  36. ^ Paine 1996, pp. 316-7.
  37. ^ Palmer, James (2011). The Bloody White Baron. Basic Books. p. 123.
  38. ^ Kuzmin, S.L. Baron Ungerny Tuukh: Uneniig Dakhin Sergeesen Turshilt [History of Baron Ungern: an Experience of Reconstruction]. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn ShUA-iin Tuukhiin Khureelen – OKhU-yn ShUA-iin Dorno Dakhin Sudlalyn Khureelen Publ., 2013, p.208-459 (in Mongolian)
  39. ^
    ISBN 9781417585045
    .
  40. ^ Andreyev 2014, p. 274.
  41. ^ Andreyev 2014, p. 275.
  42. ^ a b Heissig, Walther (1966). The Lost Civilization: The Mongols Rediscovered. Basic Books. pp. 186, 193 202–203.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Bulag, Uradyn (1998). Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia. Clarendon Press.
  44. ^ Wang 97
  45. ^ Demchugdongrub "used to represent the Mongolian nation's inspirations for independence and liberation." Quoted in Liu 132
  46. ^ Liu, Xiaoyuan (2010). Recast All Under Heaven: Revolution, War, Diplomacy, and Frontier China in the 20th Century. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 175.
  47. ^ Heinzig, Dieter (2004). The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950. M.E. Sharpe. p. 146.
  48. ^ Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990. Cambridge University Press. pp. 356–358.
  49. ^ Ong, Russell (2002). China's Security Interests in the post-Cold War Era. Psychology Press. p. 38.
  50. ^ Sanders, Alan (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 153–155.
  51. ^ Diener, Alexander. "Mongols, Kazakhs, and Mongolian Territorial Identity: Competing Trajectories of Nationalization". Central Eurasian Studies Review. 4 (1): 19–24.
  52. ISBN 0198233574
    . Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  53. ISBN 0198233574
    . Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  54. ISBN 1134396732
    . Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  55. ISBN 978-0802719171
    . Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  56. ^ Sheng, Lijun (2011). China's Dilemma: The Taiwan Issue. I.B. Tauris. p. 45.

Sources

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