Panthéon
Panthéon | |
---|---|
Former names | Église Sainte-Geneviève |
General information | |
Type | Mausoleum |
Architectural style | Neoclassicism |
Location | Place du Panthéon Paris, France |
Coordinates | 48°50′46″N 2°20′45″E / 48.84611°N 2.34583°E |
Construction started | 1758 |
Completed | 1790 |
Design and construction | |
Architect(s) | Jacques-Germain Soufflot Jean-Baptiste Rondelet |
Website | |
https://www.paris-pantheon.fr/en/ | |
Designated | 1920 |
Reference no. | PA00088420 |
The Panthéon (French:
By the time the construction was finished, the French Revolution had started; the National Constituent Assembly voted in 1791 to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into a mausoleum for the remains of distinguished French citizens, modelled on the Pantheon in Rome which had been used in this way since the 17th century. The first panthéonisé was Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, although his remains were removed from the building a few years later. The Panthéon was twice restored to church usage in the course of the 19th century—although Soufflot's remains were transferred inside it in 1829—until the French Third Republic finally decreed the building's exclusive use as a mausoleum in 1881. The placement of Victor Hugo's remains in the crypt in 1885 was its first entombment in over 50 years.
The successive changes in the Panthéon's purpose resulted in modifications of the pedimental sculptures and the capping of the dome by a cross or a flag; some of the originally existing windows were blocked up with masonry in order to give the interior a darker and more funereal atmosphere,[2] which compromised somewhat Soufflot's initial attempt at combining the lightness and brightness of the Gothic cathedral with classical principles.[3] The architecture of the Panthéon is an early example of Neoclassicism, surmounted by a dome that owes some of its character to Bramante's Tempietto.
In 1851, Léon Foucault conducted a demonstration of diurnal motion at the Panthéon by suspending a pendulum from the ceiling, a copy of which is still visible today. As of December 2021 the remains of 81 people (75 men and six women) had been transferred to the Panthéon.[4] More than half of all the panthéonisations were made under Napoleon's rule during the First Empire.
History
Site and earlier buildings
The site of the Panthéon had great significance in Paris history, and was occupied by a series of monuments. It was on Mount Lucotitius, a height on the Left Bank where the forum of the Roman town of
Construction
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Soufflot's original plan for the Church of Sainte Genevieve (1756)
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Soufflot's final plan: the principal façade (1777)
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Soufflot's plan of the three domes, one within another
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Looking upward at the first and second domes
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Iron rods were used to give greater strength and stability to the stone structure (1758–90)
His first design was completed in 1755, and was clearly influenced by the work of
The foundations were laid in 1758, but due to economic problems work proceeded slowly. In 1780, Soufflot died and was replaced by his student Jean-Baptiste Rondelet. The re-modelled Abbey of St. Genevieve was finally completed in 1790, shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution.
The building is 110 metres long by 84 metres wide, and 83 metres high, with the crypt beneath of the same size. The ceiling was supported by isolated columns, which supported an array of
The dome is actually three domes, fitting within each other. The first, lowest dome, has a coffered ceiling with rosettes, and is open in the centre. Looking through this dome, the second dome is visible, decorated with the fresco The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve by
The Revolution – The "Temple of the Nation"
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The Tomb of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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The Panthéon in 1795. The façade windows were bricked up to make the interior darker and more solemn.
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Tomb and statue of Voltaire
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Transfer of ashes of Voltaire to the Pantheon (1791)
The Church of Saint Genevieve was nearly complete, with only the interior decoration unfinished, when the French Revolution began in 1789. In 1790, the Marquis de Vilette proposed that it be made a temple devoted to liberty, on the model of the Pantheon in Rome. "Let us install statues of our great men and lay their ashes to rest in its underground recesses."[11] The idea was formally adopted in April, 1791, after the death of the prominent revolutionary figure, The Comte de Mirabeau, the President of the National Constituent Assembly on April 2, 1791. On April 4, 1791, the Assembly decreed "that this religious church become a temple of the nation, that the tomb of a great man become the altar of liberty." They also approved a new text over the entrance: "A grateful nation honors its great men." On the same day the declaration was approved, the funeral of Mirabeau was held in the church.[11]
The ashes of
Soon after the church was transformed into a mausoleum, the Assembly approved architectural changes to make the interior darker and more solemn. The architect Quatremère de Quincy bricked up the lower windows and frosted the glass of the upper windows to reduce the light, and removed most of the ornament from the exterior. The architectural lanterns and bells were removed from the façade. All of the religious friezes and statues were destroyed in 1791; it was replaced by statuary and murals on patriotic themes.[12]
Temple to church and back to temple (1806–1830)
During the reign of Napoleon, the remains of forty-one illustrious Frenchmen were placed in the crypt. They were mostly military officers, senators and other high officials of the Empire, but also included the explorer
During the
Under Louis Philippe I, the Second Republic and Napoleon III (1830–1871)
The
Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848 and replaced by the elected government of the
Louis Napoléon, nephew of the Emperor, was elected President of France in December 1848, and in 1852 staged a coup-d'état and made himself Emperor. Once again the Pantheon was returned to the church, with the title of "National Basilica". The remaining relics of Saint Genevieve were restored to the church, and two groups of sculpture commemorating events in the life of the Saint were added. The crypt remained closed.
The Third Republic (1871–1939)
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Saint Genevieve bringing supplies to Paris byPuvis de Chavannes(1874)
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Christ Showing the Angel of France the Destiny of Her People, mosaic by Antoine-Auguste-Ernest Hébert
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The National Convention by François-Léon Siccard (1921)
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Victory leading the Armies of the Republic byEdouard Detaille(1905)
The Basilica suffered damage from German shelling during the 1870
In 1881, a decree was passed to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into a mausoleum again. Victor Hugo was the first to be placed in the crypt afterwards. The subsequent governments approved the entry of literary figures, including the writer Émile Zola (1908), and, after World War I, leaders of the French socialist movement, including Léon Gambetta (1920) and Jean Jaurès (1924). The Third Republic governments also decreed that the building should be decorated with sculpture representing "the golden ages and great men of France." The principal works remaining from this period include the sculptural group called The National Assembly, commemorating the French Revolution; a statue of Mirabeau, the first man interred in the Pantheon, by Jean-Antoine Ingabert; (1889–1920); and two patriotic murals in the apse Victory Leading the Armies of the Republic to Towards Glory by Édouard Detaille, and Glory Entering the Temple, Followed by Poets, Philosophers, Scientists and Warriors , by Marie-Désiré-Hector d'Espouy (1906).[15]
1945–present
The short-lived
Under the
Architecture and art
Dome
The final plan of the dome was accepted in 1777, and it was completed in 1790. It was designed to rival those of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and St Paul's Cathedral in London. Unlike the dome of Les Invalides in Paris, which has a wooden framework, the dome is constructed entirely of stone. It is actually three domes, one within the other, with the painted ceiling, visible from below, on the second dome. The dome is 83.0 metres (272 ft) high, compared with the tallest dome in the world, St. Peter's Basilica at 136.57 metres (448.1 ft).
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Dome
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The Panthéon represented with a statue of Fame at its top
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The present-day cross atop the roof lantern
The dome is capped by a cross. However, a statue of Saint Genevieve was initially supposed to sit at the top of the dome. A cross was put temporarily in 1790. After the transformation into a mausoleum in 1791, it was planned that the cross would be replaced by a statue representing Fame. The project was however abandoned. Between 1830 and 1851, a flag was put instead. The cross returned after Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte restored the building to church use. The cross was replaced with a red flag during the Paris Commune in 1871. A cross returned subsequently.
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The fresco by Gros seen from inside the dome
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The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve, in the dome by Antoine-Jean Gros (1811–1834)
Looking up from the crossing of the transept beneath the dome, the painting by
The four pendentives, or arches, which support the dome are decorated with paintings from the same period by François Gérard depicting Glory, Death, The Nation and Justice (1821–37).
Façade, peristyle and entrance
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Main façade
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The pediment, with the central figures of the Nation and Liberty: statesmen and scholars to the left, soldiers to the right
The façade and
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The richly detailed Corinthian order
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Bas-reliefs below the peristyle
Below the peristyle are five sculpted bas-reliefs; the two reliefs over the main doors, commissioned during the Revolution, represent the two main purposes of the building: "Public Education" (left) and "Patriotic Devotion" (right).
The façade originally had large windows, but they were replaced when the church became a mausoleum, to make the interior darker and more somber.
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Panoramic view of interior
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Saint Genevieve as a child in prayer, byPuvis de Chavannes(1876)
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Jules Eugène Lenepveu
The primary decoration of the Western Nave is a series of paintings, beginning in the Narthex, depicting the lives of
Foucault pendulum
In 1851, physicist Léon Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the Earth by constructing a 67-metre (220 ft) pendulum beneath the central dome. The original sphere from the pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon in the 1990s (starting in 1995) during renovations at the Musée des Arts et Métiers. The original pendulum was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers, and a copy is now displayed at the Panthéon.[20] It has been listed since 1920 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture.[21]
Interment in the crypt
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A corridor of the Crypt
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Tomb of Louis Braille
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Tombs ofEmile Zola(right)
Interment in the crypt of the Panthéon is severely restricted and is allowed only by a parliamentary act for "National Heroes". Similar high honours exist in
Among those buried in its
The widely repeated story that the remains of Voltaire were stolen by religious fanatics in 1814 and thrown into a garbage heap is false. Such rumours resulted in the coffin being opened in 1897, which confirmed that his remains were still present.[24]
On 30 November 2002, in an elaborate but solemn procession, six
In January 2007, President Jacques Chirac unveiled a plaque in the Panthéon to more than 2,600 people recognised as Righteous Among the Nations by the Yad Vashem memorial in Israel for saving the lives of Jews who would otherwise have been deported to concentration camps. The tribute in the Panthéon underlines the fact that around three-quarters of the country's Jewish population survived the war, often thanks to ordinary people who provided help at the risk of their own life. This plaque says:
Sous la chape de haine et de nuit tombée sur la France dans les années d'Occupation, des lumières, par milliers, refusèrent de s'éteindre. Nommés " Justes parmi les nations " ou restés anonymes, des femmes et des hommes, de toutes origines et de toutes conditions, ont sauvé des juifs des persécutions antisémites et des camps d'extermination. Bravant les risques encourus, ils ont incarné l'honneur de la France, ses valeurs de justice, de tolérance et d'humanité.
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Under the cloak of hatred and darkness that spread over France during the years of [Nazi] occupation, thousands of lights refused to be extinguished. Named as " Righteous among the Nations " or remaining anonymous, women and men, of all backgrounds and social classes, saved Jews from anti-Semitic persecution and the extermination camps. Braving the risks involved, they embodied the honour of France, and its values of justice, tolerance and humanity.
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People interred or commemorated
Year | Name | Lived | Profession | Burial | Picture | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1791 | Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau | 1749–1791 | Revolutionary | — | — | First person honoured with burial in the Panthéon, 4 April 1791. Disinterred on 25 November 1794 and buried in an anonymous grave. His remains are yet to be recovered.[25] |
1791 | Voltaire | 1694–1778 | Writer and philosopher | Entrée | ||
1792 | Nicolas-Joseph Beaurepaire | 1740–1792 | Military officer | — | — | Remains since disappeared |
1793 | Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau
|
1760–1793 | Politician | — | — | Assassinated deputy; disinterred from the Panthéon at the request of his family on 14 February 1795. |
1793 | Auguste Marie Henri Picot de Dampierre | 1756–1793 | Military officer | — | — | Remains since disappeared |
1794 | Jean-Paul Marat | 1743–1793 | Politician | — | — | Disinterred from the Panthéon. |
1794 | Jean-Jacques Rousseau | 1712–1778 | Writer and Philosopher | Entrée | ||
1806 | François Denis Tronchet | 1726–1806 | Politician and lawyer | Crypt V | ||
1806 | Claude-Louis Petiet
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1749–1806 | Politician | Crypt V | ||
1807 | Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis | 1746–1807 | Politician | Crypt V | ||
1807 | Louis-Pierre-Pantaléon Resnier | 1759–1807 | Politician | Crypt V | ||
1807 | Louis-Joseph-Charles-Amable d'Albert, duc de Luynes | 1748—1807 | Politician | — | — | Disinterred from the Panthéon in 1862 and returned to his family at their request. |
1807 | Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Bevière | 1723–1807 | Politician | Crypt V | ||
1808 | François Barthélemy, comte Beguinot | 1747–1808 | Military officer | Crypt V | ||
1808 | Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis | 1757–1808 | Scientist and philosopher | Crypt V | ||
1808 | Gabriel-Louis, marquis de Caulaincourt | 1741–1808 | Military officer | Crypt V | ||
1808 | Jean-Frédéric Perregaux | 1744–1808 | Banker | Crypt IV | ||
1808 | Antoine-César de Choiseul, duc de Praslin | 1756–1808 | Military officer and politician | Crypt V | ||
1808 | Jean-Pierre Firmin Malher | 1761–1808 | Military officer | Crypt V | Urn with his heart. | |
1809 | Jean Baptiste Papin, comte de Saint-Christau | 1756–1809 | Politician and lawyer | Crypt V | ||
1809 | Joseph-Marie Vien | 1716–1809 | Painter | Crypt III | ||
1809 | Pierre Garnier de Laboissière | 1755–1809 | Military officer | Crypt III | ||
1809 | Jean Pierre, comte Sers | 1746–1809 | Politician | Crypt III | Urn with his heart. | |
1809 | Jérôme-Louis-François-Joseph, comte de Durazzo | 1739–1809 | Politician | Crypt V | Urn with his heart. | |
1809 | Justin Bonaventure Morard de Galles | 1761–1809 | Military officer | Crypt III | Urn with his heart. | |
1809 | Emmanuel Crétet de Champmol | 1747–1809 | Politician | Crypt III | ||
1810 | Cardinal Giovanni Battista Caprara | 1733–1810 | Clergyman | Crypt III | Heart buried in Milan Cathedral in 1810. Body disinterred from the Panthéon in 1861 and returned to his family at their request. His remains were transferred from Paris to Rome on 22 August 1861.
| |
1810 | Louis Charles Vincent Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire
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1766–1809 | Military officer | Crypt III | ||
1810 | Jean-Baptiste Treilhard
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1742–1810 | Lawyer | Crypt III | ||
1810 | Jean Lannes de Montebello | 1769–1809 | Military officer | Crypt XXII | ||
1810 | Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu | 1738–1810 | Politician | Crypt III | ||
1811 | Louis Antoine de Bougainville | 1729–1811 | Navigator | Crypt III | ||
1811 | Cardinal Charles Erskine de Kellie | 1739–1811 | Clergyman | Crypt III | ||
1811 | Alexandre-Antoine Hureau de Sénarmont | 1769–1811 | Military officer | Crypt II | Urn with his heart. | |
1811 | Cardinal Ippolito Antonio, cardinal Vincenti Mareri | 1738–1811 | Clergyman | Crypt III | ||
1811 | Nicolas Marie Songis des Courbons
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1761–1811 | Military officer | Crypt III | ||
1811 | Michel Ordener, 1st Count Ordener[26] | 1755–1811 | Military officer | Crypt II | ||
1812 | Jean Marie Pierre Dorsenne
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1773–1812 | Military officer | Crypt II | ||
1812 | Jan Willem de Winter | 1761–1812 | Military officer | Crypt IV | Heart buried in Kampen, Overijssel, Netherlands, his birthplace. | |
1813 | Hyacinthe-Hugues-Timoléon de Cossé, Comte de Brissac | 1746–1813 | Military officer | Crypt II | ||
1813 | Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot, Comte de Ham | 1758–1813 | Lawyer | Crypt II | ||
1813 | Joseph-Louis Lagrange | 1736–1813 | Mathematician | Crypt II | ||
1813 | Jean Rousseau | 1738–1813 | Politician | Crypt II | ||
1813 | Justin de Viry | 1737–1813 | Politician | Crypt II | ||
1814 | Frédéric Henri Walther | 1761–1813 | Military officer | Crypt IV | ||
1814 | Jean-Nicolas Démeunier | 1751–1814 | Politician | Crypt II | ||
1814 | Jean-Louis-Ébénézer Reynier | 1771–1814 | Military officer | Crypt IV | ||
1814 | Claude Ambroise Régnier de Massa di Carrara
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1746–1814 | Politician and lawyer | Crypt II | ||
1815 | Antoine-Jean-Marie Thévenard | 1733–1815 | Military officer | Crypt II | ||
1815 | Claude-Juste-Alexandre Legrand | 1762–1815 | Military officer | Crypt II | ||
1829 | Jacques-Germain Soufflot | 1713–1780 | Architect of the Pantheon | Entrée | ||
1885 | Victor Hugo | 1802–1885 | Writer | Crypt XXIV | ||
1889 | Lazare Carnot | 1753–1823 | Politician and scientist | Crypt XXIII | Transferred to the Panthéon at the centennial of the French Revolution. | |
1889 | Jean-Baptiste Baudin | 1811–1851 | Politician and doctor | Crypt XXIII | Transferred to the Panthéon at the centennial of the French Revolution. | |
1889 | Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne | 1743–1800 | Military officer | Crypt XXIII | Transferred to the Panthéon at the centennial of the French Revolution. | |
1889 | François Séverin Marceau | 1769–1796 | Military officer | Crypt XXIII | Ashes transferred to the Panthéon from Koblenz, Germany, at the centennial of the French Revolution. | |
1894 | Marie François Sadi Carnot
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1837–1894 | President of France | Crypt XXIII | Buried in the Panthéon immediately after his assassination. | |
1907 | Marcellin Berthelot | 1827–1907 | Scientist | Crypt XXV | Buried with his wife Sophie Berthelot as he refused to be buried apart from her.[27] | |
1907 | Sophie Berthelot | 1837–1907 | Wife of Marcellin Berthelot | Crypt XXV | Transferred to the Panthéon with her husband Marcellin Berthelot, who had refused to be buried apart from her. The first woman to be interred in the Panthéon. | |
1908 | Émile Zola | 1840–1902 | Writer | Crypt XXIV | Transferred to the Panthéon from Montmartre Cemetery .
| |
1920 | Léon Gambetta | 1838–1882 | Politician | Escalier d'accès | Urn with his heart. | |
1924 | Jean Jaurès | 1859–1914 | Politician | Crypt XXVI | Transferred to the Panthéon ten years after his assassination | |
1933 | Paul Painlevé | 1863–1933 | Mathematician and politician | Crypt XXV | ||
1948 | Paul Langevin | 1872–1946 | Scientist | Crypt XXV | Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Jean Perrin. | |
1948 | Nobel Laureate
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1870–1942 | Scientist | Crypt XXV | Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Paul Langevin. Repatriated from New York City, US. | |
1949 | Victor Schœlcher | 1804–1893 | Abolitionist | Crypt XXVI | Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Félix Éboué. Transferred from Père Lachaise Cemetery. Victor Schœlcher had wanted to be buried with his father Marc, who was therefore also interred in the Panthéon. | |
1949 | Marc Schœlcher | 1766–1832 | Father of Victor Schœlcher | Crypt XXVI | Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Victor Schœlcher. Transferred from Père Lachaise Cemetery. Victor had wanted to be buried with his father who was therefore is also interred in the Panthéon. | |
1949 | Félix Éboué | 1884–1944 | Politician | Crypt XXVI | Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Victor Schœlcher. | |
1952 | Louis Braille | 1809–1852 | Educator | Crypt XXV | Transferred to the Panthéon on the centenary of his death. | |
1964 | Jean Moulin | 1899–1943 | Résistant | Crypt VI | Ashes transferred to the Panthéon from Père Lachaise Cemetery on 19 December 1964. | |
1967 | Antoine de Saint-Exupéry | 1900–1944 | Writer | — | Commemorated with an inscription in November 1967, as his body was never found following an aerial dog fight over the Mediterranean near Marseille. | |
1987 | Nobel Laureate
|
1887–1976 | Human rights activist | Crypt VI | Transferred to the Panthéon on the centenary of his birth. Transferred from Montparnasse Cemetery. | |
1988 | Jean Monnet | 1888–1979 | Economist | Crypt VI | Transferred to the Panthéon on the centenary of his birth. | |
1989 | Abbé Henri Grégoire
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1750–1831 | Clergyman | Crypt VII | Transferred to the Panthéon at the bicentennial of the French Revolution. | |
1989 | Gaspard Monge | 1746–1818 | Mathematician | Crypt VII | Transferred to the Panthéon at the bicentennial of the French Revolution. | |
1989 | Nicolas de Condorcet
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1743–1794 | Politician | Crypt VII | Symbolic interment at the bicentennial of the French Revolution. His coffin at the Panthéon empty, his remains having been lost. | |
1995 | Nobel Laureate (1903)
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1859–1906 | Scientist | Crypt VIII | Transferred to the Panthéon in April 1995 with his wife and fellow physicist Marie Curie. | |
1995 | Nobel Laureate (1903 and 1911)
|
1867–1934 | Scientist | Crypt VIII | Second woman to be buried in the Panthéon, but the first to be honoured on her own merit. | |
1996 | André Malraux | 1901–1976 | Writer and politician | Crypt VI | Ashes transferred to the Panthéon from Verrières-le-Buisson (Essonne) Cemetery on 23 November 1996 on the 20th anniversary of his death. | |
1998 | Toussaint Louverture | 1743–1803 | Military officer | — | Commemorative plaque installed on same day as that for Louis Delgrès. | |
1998 | Louis Delgrès | 1766–1802 | Politician | — | Commemorative plaque installed on same day as that for Toussaint Louverture. | |
2002 | Alexandre Dumas
|
1802–1870 | Writer | Crypt XXIV | Transferred to the Panthéon 132 years after his death. | |
2011 | Aimé Césaire | 1913–2008 | Writer and politician | — | Commemorative plaque installed 6 April 2011; Césaire is buried in Martinique.[28] | |
2015 | Jean Zay | 1904–1944 | Politician | Crypt IX | Murdered at Molles in Allier and previously buried in Orléans in 1948. | |
2015 | Pierre Brossolette | 1903–1944 | Résistant | Crypt IX | Ashes transferred to the Panthéon from Père Lachaise Cemetery on 27 May 2015. | |
2015 | Germaine Tillion | 1907–2008 | Résistante | Crypt IX | Symbolic interment. The coffin of Germaine Tillion at the Panthéon does not contain her remains but soil from her gravesite, because her family did not want the body itself moved.[29] | |
2015 | Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz | 1920–2002 | Résistante | Crypt IX | Symbolic interment. The coffin of Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz at the Panthéon does not contain her remains but soil from her gravesite, because her family did not want the body itself moved.[29] | |
2018 | Simone Veil | 1927–2017 | Politician, Holocaust survivor | Crypt VI | Originally buried at Montparnasse Cemetery following her death in 2017.[30][31] | |
2018 | Antoine Veil | 1926–2013 | Husband of Simone Veil | Crypt VI | Transferred to the Panthéon with his wife Simone Veil. Originally buried at Montparnasse Cemetery following his death in 2013.[30][31] | |
2020 | Maurice Genevoix | 1890–1980 | Writer | Crypt XIII | Originally buried at Passy Cemetery following his death in 1980. | |
2021 | Josephine Baker | 1906–1975 | Résistante, entertainer, civil rights activist | Crypt XIII | Symbolic interment. Baker's cenotaph contains soil from her birthplace in Missouri, from France, and from her final resting place in Monaco Cemetery.[17][4][32] | |
2024 | Missak Manouchian | 1906–1944 | Resistance fighter | Crypt XIII | To be interred on 21 February 2024 with his wife Mélinée[33][34] | |
2024 | Mélinée Manouchian | 1913–1989 | Résistante, wife of Missak Manouchian | Crypt XIII |
See also
- List of tourist attractions in Paris
- Pantheon, Rome
- Panteón Nacional, Caracas
- Pantheon, Moscow
- Church of Santa Engrácia, Lisbon
- The Apotheosis of Washington – dome fresco of the US Capitol
- Listing of the work of Jean Antoine Injalbert-French sculptorSculptor of statue of Mirabeau.
- History of early modern period domes
- List of tallest domes
References
- ^ "Pantheon definitions". definitions.net. Retrieved 2020-05-13.
- ISBN 978-1782390190.
- ISBN 978-0500286500.
- ^ a b "Josephine Baker to become first Black woman to enter France's Pantheon". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. August 22, 2021.
Of the 80 figures in the Panthéon, only five are women
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, p. 3
- ISBN 9004108513.
- ^ Oudin 1994, p. 479
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, p. 9
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 9–10
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 12–13
- ^ a b Lebeurre 2000, p. 16
- ^ a b Lebeurre 2000, p. 17
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 26–27
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 26–29
- ^ a b Lebeurre 2000, pp. 33–35
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 58–59
- ^ AP News. November 30, 2021.
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, p. 56
- ^ Lebeurre 2000, pp. 43–45
- ^ "Foucault's Pendulum: Interesting Thing of the Day". Itotd.com. 2004-11-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
- ^ Base Mérimée: PA00088420, Ministère français de la Culture. (in French) Ancienne église Sainte-Geneviève, devenue Le Panthéon
- ^ Chrisafis, Angelique (1970-01-01). "France president Francois Hollande adds resistance heroines to Panthéon". World news. The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-05-30.
- ^ Willsher, Kim (2018-06-30). "France pays tribute to Simone Veil with hero's burial in the Panthéon". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-29.
- ]
- ISBN 978-0199252985.
- ^ Mullié, Charles (1852). "Michel Ordener". Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850 (in French). Paris.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Zaretsky, Robert (October 25, 2013). "Opinion | Why So Few Women in the Panthéon?". The New York Times.
- ^ France Guide (2011). "Aimé Césaire joins Voltaire and Rousseau at the Panthéon in Paris". French Government Tourist Office. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ a b "Paris celebrates WWII resistance heroes in Pantheon ceremony". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2017-01-15 – via Yahoo News.
- ^ a b Roe, David (2017-07-05). "France buries women's rights icon Simone Veil". en.rfi.fr.
- ^ a b Katz, Brigit. "France's Simone Veil Will Become the Fifth Woman Buried in the Panthéon". Retrieved 7 July 2017.
- ^ "Joséphine Baker au Panthéon : retrouvez l'intégralité de la cérémonie" [Joséphine Baker at the Pantheon: transcript of the entire ceremony]. Le Monde (in French). November 30, 2021.
- ^ "French-Armenian Resistance hero Missak Manouchian to enter Panthéon". RFI. 18 June 2023. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
- ^ "Armenian Resistance fighter Missak Manouchian will join France's Pantheon greats". Le Monde. 18 June 2023. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
Sources
- Lebeurre, Alexia (2000). The Pantheon: Temple of the Nation. Paris: Éditions du Patrimoine. ISBN 978-2858223435.
- Oudin, Bernard (1994). Dictionnaire des Architectes (in French). Seghers. ISBN 2232103986.
External links
- Panthéon at Centre des Monuments Nationaux
- Panthéon – current photographs and of the years 1900
- Panthéon ou église Sainte-Geneviève? Les ambiguïtés d'un monument, Denis Bocquet, MA Thesis, Sorbonne University 1992
- Panthéon at Structurae