Panthera pardus tulliana
Panthera pardus tulliana | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Feliformia |
Family: | Felidae |
Subfamily: | Pantherinae |
Genus: | Panthera |
Species: | |
Subspecies: | P. p. tulliana
|
Trinomial name | |
Panthera pardus tulliana (Valenciennes, 1856)
| |
Distribution of P. p. tulliana, 2016 | |
Synonyms | |
Panthera pardus tulliana, also called Anatolian leopard, Persian leopard and Asia Minor leopard, is a
Today, the leopard population in this region is estimated at fewer than 1,100 adults. It is threatened by
Taxonomy
Felis tulliana was the
In the 19th and 20th centuries, several naturalists described leopard zoological specimens from the Middle East:- Felis pardus tulliana was proposed by Richard Lydekker in 1899 after examining a leopard skin from the Caucasus.[3]
- Felis ciscaucasica was proposed by Konstantin Alekseevich Satunin in 1914, based on a leopard specimen from the Kuban region in the North Caucasus.[4][5]
- Panthera pardus saxicolor was proposed by Asterabad.[6]
- P. p. sindica was proposed by Pocock in 1930 for a single skin and two skulls from the Kirthar Mountains in Balochistan; the skin closely resembled Persian leopard and Asia Minor leopard skins, but its colour differed from the colour of the Indian leopard (P. p. fusca).[7] It was subsumed to P. p. saxicolor based on molecular genetic analysis in 1996.[8][9]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Anatolian leopard was considered a distinct leopard subspecies that occurred only in western Turkey. The leopard specimens available in zoological museum collections do not differ significantly in the sizes and shapes of skulls. Therefore, the subspecific names tulliana, ciscaucasica and saxicolor are currently considered synonyms.[10][11]
The
In 2017, the Persian leopard population was subsumed to P. p. tulliana, which is the oldest available name for the leopard subspecies in West Asia.[16]
Phylogeny
A
Characteristics
P. p. tulliana has a grayish, slightly reddish fur with large rosettes on the flanks and back, smaller ones on the shoulder and upper legs, and spots on the head and neck.[2] It varies in colouration; in Iran both pale and dark individuals occur.[19] Its average body length is 158 cm (62 in), with a 192 mm (7.6 in) long skull and a 94 cm (37 in) long tail.[4] It weighs up to 60 kg (130 lb).[20]
Biometric data collected from 25 female and male individuals in various provinces of Iran indicate an average body length of 259 cm (102 in). A young male from northern Iran weighed 64 kg (141 lb).[21]
Distribution and habitat
The habitat of P. p. tulliana in the
Country | Year | Estimate[1] |
---|---|---|
Iran | 2022 | 550–850 |
Pakistan | 2022 | 130–178 |
Turkmenistan | 2022 | 60–80 |
Azerbaijan | 2022 | 6–17 |
Iraq | 2022 | 9 |
Armenia | 2022 | 3–9 |
Russia | 2022 | 6 |
Nagorno-Karabakh | 2022 | 2 |
Georgia | 2022 | 1 |
Kazakhstan | 2022 | 0–5 |
Turkey | 2021 | less than 5 [23]: 2 |
Afghanistan | 2022 | unknown |
Total | 2022 | 750–1,044 |
In northern Anatolia, zoologists found evidence of leopards in the upper forest and alpine zones of the Pontic Mountains during surveys carried out between 1993 and 2002.[24] Its presence in the Pontic Mountains was questioned in 2016 due to a lack of evidence.[25] A camera trap photograph obtained in Trabzon Province in the Black Sea region in September 2013 is said to show a leopard. Its preferred habitat is thought to be sparse forest areas, followed by rocky areas, agriculture and pasture areas, and riparian zones.[26] In southeastern Turkey, its presence was documented in the
In the Caucasus, leopards were sighted around the Tbilisi area and in the Shida Kartli province in Georgia, where they live primarily in dense forests. Several individuals were sighted in the lowland plains of the Kakheti region in 2004.[31] Leopard signs were also found at two localities in
Leopards have been sporadically recorded in northern Iraq.[44] In October 2011 and January 2012, a leopard was photographed by a camera trap on Jazhna Mountain in the Zagros Mountains forest steppe in the Kurdistan Region.[45] Between 2001 and 2014, at least nine leopards were killed by local people in this region.[27] In 2020, a leopard was recorded in the mountains of the Sulaymaniyah Governorate in the country's northeast.[46]
Iran is considered a stronghold of the leopard in the region. It is more abundant in the northern than in the southern part of the country,
In Pakistan, it inhabits
In Kazakhstan, a leopard was recorded for the first time in 2000 in Jambyl Region.[61] In 2007 and 2015, two leopards were killed in Mangystau Region farther west in the country. Between September and December 2018, camera traps recorded a leopard on a cliff in Ustyurt Nature Reserve.[62]
Historical range
P. p. tulliana was most likely distributed over the entire Caucasus, except for the steppe areas. The northern foothills of the Greater Caucasus formed the northern boundary of its historic range. During surveys conducted between 2001 and 2005, no leopard was recorded in the western Greater Caucasus; it probably survived only at a few sites in the eastern part.[22] In Armenia, people and leopards have co-existed since prehistoric times. In the mid-20th century, the leopard was relatively common in the country's mountains.[63]
Stone traps for leopards and other predators dating to the Roman Empire still exist in the Taurus Mountains in southern Turkey.[64] The last leopard in Syria is reported to have been killed in 1963 in the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range.[65] P. p. tulliana was once numerous in the
The leopard population in southern Russia had been reduced to two small and isolated populations by the 1950s, and by 2007, there were fewer than 50 individuals in the region.[22] Since 1954, leopards were thought to be extirpated in Georgia, following kills by hunters.[70] The political and social changes caused by the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1992 caused a severe economic crisis and weakening of formerly effective protection systems; wildlife habitats were severely fragmented, leopards were persecuted and wild ungulates were hunted. In addition, inadequate baseline data and lack of monitoring programmes made it difficult to evaluate declines of mammalian prey species.[71] In the winter of 2003, zoologists found footprints of a leopard in Vashlovani National Park in southeastern Georgia. Camera traps recorded one young male individual several times.[72] The individual was not recorded again between 2009 and 2014.[36] A survey in 2019 found no leopards.[73]
Leopards also survived in northwestern Azerbaijan in the Akhar-Bakhar section of Ilisu State Reserve in the foothills of the Greater Caucasus, but in 2007 numbers were thought to be extremely low.[32]
In Afghanistan, the leopard is thought to inhabit the central highlands of the
Behaviour and ecology
The diet of P. p. tulliana varies depending on habitat.[76] In southern Armenia and Iran, it preys mostly on wild goat (Capra aegagrus), mouflon (Ovis gmelini), wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) and European hare (Lepus europaeus).[77][20] It occasionally attacks livestock and herding dogs. In Iran, the presence of leopards is highly correlated with the presence of wild goat and wild sheep. An attack by a leopard on an onager (Equus hemionus) was also recorded.[78] In Turkey, it also preys on chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra).[26]
Adult males usually share their home ranges entirely or partially with two or three adult females.[20] The mating season lasts from mid-January to mid-February.[50] In Sarigol National Park, three females were documented in late April to May 2008 with one to two cubs each.[50] A female with two cubs was also photographed in the Alborz Mountains.[49]
Threats
Since 2016 these leopards have been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as the wild population is estimated at less than 1,000 mature individuals.[1] P. p. tulliana is threatened by poaching, depletion of prey base due to poaching, human disturbance such as presence of military and training of troops in border areas, and habitat loss due to deforestation, fire, agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and infrastructure development.[1] In the 1980s,
In April 2001, an adult female was shot on the border to Kabardino-Balkaria; her two cubs were captured and taken to Novosibirsk Zoo in Russia.[70] Between 2004 and 2007, a total of 85 leopard skins were seen being offered in markets in Kabul.[81] Leopards were known to live on the Meghri Ridge in the extreme south of Armenia, where only one individual was imaged by a camera trap between August 2006 and April 2007, but no signs of other leopards were found during track surveys conducted over an area of 296.9 km2 (114.6 sq mi). The local prey base could support 4–10 individuals. But the combined impact of poaching, disturbance caused by livestock breeding, gathering of edible plants and mushrooms, deforestation and human-induced wild fires was so high that the tolerance limits of leopards was exceeded.[82] Only some small and isolated populations remain in the whole Caucasus. Suitable habitat is limited, and most often situated in remote border areas.[83] Local populations depend on immigration from source populations mainly in Iran.[32]
In Turkey, the leopard has been killed illegally in traps and through poison.
In Iran, primary threats are habitat disturbances, poaching and excess of livestock in leopard habitats. Leopards are unlikely to persist outside of protected areas.[89] Droughts in wide areas of leopard habitats affected the main prey species such as wild goat and wild sheep.[90]
An assessment of leopard mortality in Iran revealed that 71 leopards were killed between 2007 and 2011 in 18 provinces; 70% were hunted or poisoned illegally, and 18% died in road accidents.
Conservation
Panthera pardus is listed in
In 2001, a five-year leopard conservation project was initiated in the Caucasus, which supported systematic surveys in the region, the planning of new and enlargement of existing protected areas, training of border guards and school education campaigns in Armenia and Azerbaijan; an anti-poaching unit was set up in Armenia.[97] In 2005, the Armenian Ministry of Environment approved a conservation plan with the leopard as an umbrella species, and a strategy for leopard conservation in the Caucasus in 2008.[100] In Iran, a leopard conservation and management action plan was endorsed in 2016,[101][102] and Future4Leopards Foundation is a non-profit conservation organization in the country.[103] As of 2019[update], Nature Iraq is mapping potential habitat near the border with Iran as the first stage of a conservation project.[104] Conservationists hope that it will encourage people to protect, connect and restore suitable habitat, including international Wildlife corridors.[105] Wildlife corridors for the safe dispersal of leopards between there and other protected areas in Iran's Alborz Mountains have been mapped in an area of 3,132 km2 (1,209 sq mi).[106] As of 2022 further conservation work is needed to conserve corridors,[107] including protecting more areas.[108] Three core habitats and suitable corridors between protected areas in the Zagros Mountains were identified along the international border between Iran and Iraq.[109]
In 2021, several authors suggested that there is enough suitable habitat in the Caucasus as a whole for over 1,000 leopards, but a metapopulation will only be viable if persecution is reduced and prey restored.[110]
Reintroduction projects
In 2009, the Leopard Breeding and Rehabilitation Centre in Russia's
In captivity
As of 2021 there are over 100 captive Persian leopards in zoos worldwide, and the
In history and culture
Representations of the Anatolian leopard found in the ancient city of Thyatira in Anatolia date from the Neolithic period to the end of the 6th century BC. The leopard is depicted on statues, potteries, ivory works and coins associated with the Lydian culture. Several pieces were found in areas that were used for worship.[115]
Roman statesman
The Natural History Museum of the Aegean on
The story of the leopard and the exhibit inspired Greek author Alki Zei to write a novel for children titled Greek: Το καπλάνι της βιτρίνας, translated as Wildcat Under Glass.[119][120]
See also
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External links
- "Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana)". IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group.
- "Caucasian Leopard – The King of the Armenian mountains". WWF-Armenia.
- "ICS study confirms transboundary leopard movements between Azerbaijan and Iran in the Caucasus". Iranian Cheetah Society. 2018.
- Leopards .:. wild-cat.org — Information about research and conservation of leopards in Asia
- "Research, Conservation and Management of Asian leopard subspecies". Asian Leopard Specialist Society. 2011.
- "Watch This Rare Video of an Endangered Persian Leopard in the Wild". Vice News. 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.