Papal States
State of the Church | |
---|---|
756–1870 Interregna (1798–1799, 1809–1814 and 1849–1850) | |
Anthem:
| |
Roman Catholicism (state religion) | |
Government | (756–1798; 1800–1809)
|
Pope | |
• 756–757 (first) | Stephen II |
• 1846–1870 (last) | Pius IX |
Cardinal Secretary of State | |
• 1551–1555 (first) | Girolamo Dandini |
• 1848–1870 (last) | Giacomo Antonelli |
Prime Minister | |
• 1847–1848 (first) | Gabriele Ferretti |
• 1848–1849 (last) | C. E. Muzzarelli |
Legislature | Parliament (1848) |
History | |
756 | |
781 | |
• Treaty of Venice (sovereignty reaffirmed) | 1177 |
• Publication of the Constitutiones Aegidianae | 1357 |
February 1798 | |
17 May 1809 | |
20 September 1870 | |
• Annexation to the Kingdom of Italy | 09 October 1870 |
11 February 1929 | |
Area | |
Before 1859[5] | 44,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi) |
Population | |
• 1853[6] | 3,124,668 |
Currency |
|
Today part of |
This article is part of a series on |
Vatican City |
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|
The Papal States (
The state was legally established in the 8th century when Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, gifted Pope Stephen II, as a temporal sovereign, lands formerly held by Arian Lombards, adding them to lands and other real estate formerly acquired and held by the bishops of Rome, as landlords, from the time of Constantine onward. This donation came about as part of a process whereby the popes began to turn away from the Byzantine emperors as their foremost temporal guardians for reasons such as increased imperial taxes, disagreement with respect to iconoclasm, and failure of the emperors, or their exarchs in Italy, to protect Rome and the rest of the peninsula from barbarian invasion and pillage.[9]
During the Renaissance, the papal territory expanded greatly, and the Pope became one of Italy's most important rulers as well as the head of Western Christianity. At their zenith, the Papal States covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio (which includes Rome), Marche, Umbria, Romagna and portions of Emilia. The popes' reign over these lands was an exemplification of their temporal powers as secular rulers, as opposed to their ecclesiastical primacy.
By 1860, much of the Papal States' territory had been conquered by the
Name
The Papal States were also known as the Papal State (although the plural is usually preferred, the singular is equally correct as the polity was more than a mere
History
Origins
For its first 300 years, within the
A law of Constantine the Great, promulgated in 321, allowed the Christian Church to possess property and restored to it any property formerly confiscated; in the larger cities of this empire the property restored would have been quite considerable, the Roman patrimony not least among them.[11] The Lateran Palace was gifted to the patrimony, most probably from Constantine himself.[11]
Other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. However, the Roman Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, not as a sovereign entity. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the papacy found itself increasingly placed in a precarious and vulnerable position. As central Roman authority disintegrated throughout the late 5th century, control over the Italian peninsula repeatedly changed hands, falling under the Arian suzerainty of Odoacer in 473, and in 493, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. The Ostrogothic kings would continue to rule much of Italy until 554. The Roman Church submitted of necessity to their sovereign authority, while asserting its spiritual primacy over the whole of Christendom.[13]
Beginning in 535, the
With effective Byzantine power weighted at the northeast end of this territory, the pope, as the largest landowner and most prestigious figure in Italy, began by default to take on much of the ruling authority that the Byzantines were unable to exercise in the areas surrounding the city of Rome.[18] While the popes legally remained "Roman subjects" under Byzantine authority, in practice the Duchy of Rome became an independent state.[19]
Popular support for the popes in Italy enabled several to defy the will of the Byzantine emperor:
Donation of Pepin
When the
In 781, Charlemagne codified the regions over which the pope would be temporal sovereign: the Duchy of Rome, Ravenna, the Duchy of the Pentapolis, parts of the Duchy of Benevento, Tuscany, Corsica, Lombardy, and a number of Italian cities. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne 'Emperor of the Romans'.
Relationship with the Holy Roman Empire
From the 9th century to the 12th century, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and
The Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed when it was subdivided among
In practice, the popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over the extensive and mountainous territories of the Papal States, and the region preserved its old system of government, with many small countships and marquisates, each centred upon a fortified
Over several campaigns in the mid-10th century, the German ruler
Avignon Papacy
From 1305 to 1378, the popes lived in the papal enclave of Avignon, surrounded by Provence and under the influence of the French kings.[26][27][28][29][30] This period was known as the "Avignonese" or "Babylonian Captivity".[31] During this period the city of Avignon itself and the surrounding Comtat Venaissin was added to the Papal States; it remained a papal possession for some 400 years even after the popes returned to Rome, until it was seized and incorporated into the French state during the French Revolution.
During the Avignon Papacy, local despots took advantage of the absence of the popes to establish themselves in nominally papal cities: the Pepoli in Bologna, the Ordelaffi in Forlì, the Manfredi in Faenza, and the Malatesta in Rimini all gave nominal acknowledgment to their papal overlords and were declared vicars of the Church.
In Ferrara, the death of Azzo VIII d'Este without legitimate heirs (1308[32]) encouraged Pope Clement V to bring Ferrara under his direct rule: however, it was governed by his appointed vicar, King Robert of Naples, for only nine years before the citizens recalled the Este from exile (1317). Interdiction and excommunications were in vain because in 1332, John XXII was obliged to name three Este brothers as his vicars in Ferrara.[33]
In Rome itself, the Orsini and the Colonna struggled for supremacy,[34] dividing the city's rioni between them. The resulting aristocratic anarchy in the city provided the setting for the fantastic dreams of universal democracy of Cola di Rienzo, who was acclaimed Tribune of the People in 1347,[35] and met a violent death in early October 1354 as he was assassinated by supporters of the Colonna family.[36] To many, rather than an ancient Roman tribune reborn, he had become just another tyrant using the rhetoric of Roman renewal and rebirth to mask his grab for power.[36] As Guido Ruggiero states, "even with the support of Petrarch, his return to first times and the rebirth of ancient Rome was one that would not prevail."[36]
The Rienzo episode engendered renewed attempts from the absentee papacy to re-establish order in the dissolving Papal States, resulting in the military progress of
Renaissance
During the Renaissance, the Papal territory expanded greatly, notably under Popes Alexander VI and Julius II. The Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers as well as the head of the Church, signing treaties with other sovereigns and fighting wars. In practice, though, most of the Papal States were still only nominally controlled by the Pope, and much of the territory was ruled by minor princes. Control was always contested; indeed it took until the 16th century for the Pope to have any genuine control over all his territories.
Papal responsibilities were often in conflict. The Papal States were involved in at least three wars in the first two decades of the 16th century.[38] Julius II, the "Warrior Pope", fought on their behalf.
Reformation
The Reformation began in 1517. In 1527, before the Holy Roman Empire fought the Protestants, troops loyal to Emperor Charles V brutally sacked Rome and imprisoned Pope Clement VII, as a side effect of battles over the Papal States.[39] Thus Clement VII was forced to give up Parma, Modena, and several smaller territories.[40][39] A generation later the armies of King Philip II of Spain defeated those of Pope Paul IV in the Italian War of 1551–1559 fought to prevent growing Spanish dominance in Italy.[41]
This period saw a gradual revival of the pope's temporal power in the Papal States. Throughout the 16th century, virtually independent fiefs such as Rimini (a possession of the Malatesta family) were brought back under Papal control. In 1512 the state of the church annexed Parma and Piacenza, which in 1545 became an independent duchy under an illegitimate son of Pope Paul III. This process culminated in the reclaiming of the Duchy of Ferrara in 1598,[42][43] and the Duchy of Urbino in 1631.[44]
At its greatest extent, in the 18th century, the Papal States included most of central Italy – Latium, Umbria, Marche, and the legations of Ravenna, Ferrara, and Bologna extending north into the Romagna. It also included the small enclaves of Benevento and Pontecorvo in southern Italy and the larger Comtat Venaissin around Avignon in southern France.
Roman Republic, Napoleonic era
The French Revolution affected the temporal territories of the Papacy as well as the Roman Church in general. In 1791 an election in Comtat Venaissin and Avignon was followed by occupation by Revolutionary France.[45] Later, with the French invasion of Italy in 1796, the Legations (the Papal States' northern territories[45]) were seized and became part of the Cisalpine Republic.[45]
Two years later, French forces invaded the remaining area of the Papal States, and in February 1798 General
In October 1799,Following the fall of the First French Empire in 1814, the Congress of Vienna formally restored the Italian territories of the Papal States, but not the Comtat Venaissin or Avignon, to Vatican control.[45]
Upon restitution of sovereignty to the Papal States, Pius VII decided to abolish feudalism, transforming all the noble titles (temporarily abolished during the Napoleonic occupation) into honorifics disconnected from territorial privileges. In 1853, Pius IX put an end to the centuries-old duality between the Papal nobility and the Roman baronial families by equating the civic patriciate of the city of Rome with the nobility created by the Pope.
From 1814 until the death of Pope Gregory XVI in 1846, the popes followed a reactionary policy in the Papal States. For instance, the city of Rome maintained the last Jewish ghetto in Western Europe.
Italian unification
The nationalist and liberal
As a result of the Second Italian War of Independence, Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy, while Giuseppe Garibaldi overthrew the Bourbon monarchy in the south.[48][49] Afraid that Garibaldi would set up a republican government, the Piedmontese government petitioned French Emperor Napoleon III for permission to send troops through the Papal States to gain control of the south. This was granted on the condition that Rome be left undisturbed.
In 1860, with much of the region already in rebellion against Papal rule, Piedmont-Sardinia invaded and conquered the eastern two-thirds of the Papal States, cementing its hold on the south. Bologna, Ferrara, Umbria, the Marches, Benevento and Pontecorvo were all formally annexed by November of the same year. While considerably reduced, the Papal States nevertheless still covered the Latium and large areas northwest of Rome.
A unified Kingdom of Italy was declared and in March 1861 the first Italian parliament, which met in Turin, the old capital of Piedmont, declared Rome the capital of the new kingdom. However, the Italian government could not take possession of the city because a French garrison in Rome protected Pope Pius IX.
Italian invasion of Rome, 1870
The opportunity for the Kingdom of Italy to eliminate the Papal States came in 1870; the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July prompted Napoleon III to recall his garrison from Rome and the collapse of the
King Victor Emmanuel II at first aimed at a peaceful conquest of the city and proposed sending troops into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. When the pope refused, Italy declared war on 10 September 1870, and the Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna, crossed the frontier of the papal territory on September 11 and advanced slowly toward Rome.
The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on September 19 and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although the Pope's tiny army was incapable of defending the city, Pius IX ordered it to put up more than token resistance to emphasize that Italy was acquiring Rome by force and not consent. This incidentally served the purposes of the Italian State and gave rise to the myth of the Breach of Porta Pia, in reality, a tame affair involving a cannonade at close range that demolished a 1600-year-old wall in poor repair. The defence of Rome was not however bloodless, with 12 dead and 47 wounded amongst the Papal forces and 32 dead plus 145 wounded of the Italian troops.[50]
Pope Pius IX ordered the commander of the Papal forces to limit the defence of the city in order to avoid bloodshed.
Despite the fact that the traditionally Catholic powers did not come to the Pope's aid, the papacy rejected the 1871 "Law of Guarantees" and any substantial accommodation with the Italian Kingdom, especially any proposal which required the Pope to become an Italian subject. Instead, the papacy confined itself (see Prisoner in the Vatican) to the Apostolic Palace and adjacent buildings in the loop of the ancient fortifications known as the Leonine City, on Vatican Hill. From there it maintained a number of features pertaining to sovereignty, such as diplomatic relations since in canon law these were inherent in the papacy.
In the 1920s, the papacy – then under
Regional governors
As the plural name Papal States indicates, the various regional components retained their identity under papal rule. The Pope was represented in each province by a governor, who bore one of a number of titles. These included "
Papal military
Historically the Papal States maintained military forces composed of volunteers, mercenaries (including Corsican Guard) and Catholic military orders. Between 1860 and 1870 the Papal Army (Esercito Pontificio in Italian) comprised two regiments of locally recruited Italian infantry, two Swiss regiments and a battalion of Irish volunteers, plus artillery and dragoons.[53] In 1861 an international Catholic volunteer corps, called Papal Zouaves after a kind of French colonial native Algerian infantry, and imitating their uniform type, was created. Predominantly made up of Dutch, French and Belgian volunteers, this corps saw service against Garibaldi's Redshirts, Italian patriots, and finally the forces of the newly united Italy.[54]
The Papal Army was disbanded in 1870, leaving only the Palatine Guard, which was itself disbanded on 14 September 1970 by Pope Paul VI;[55] the Noble Guard, which also disbanded in 1970; and the Swiss Guard, which continues to serve both as a ceremonial unit at the Vatican and as the Pope's protective force.
A small Papal Navy was also maintained, based at Civitavecchia on the west coast and Ancona on the east. With the fall of the Papal States in 1870, the last ships of the flotilla were sailed to France, where they were sold after the death of Pius IX.
See also
- Captain General of the Church
- Donation of Constantine
- History of Rome
- Index of Vatican City-related articles
- Italian United Provinces
- Roman Question
- Unification of Italy
- War of the Eight Saints
- The clash between the Church and the Empire
References
Citations
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Anticamente la bandiera dello Stato pontificio era giallorossa (o per meglio dire amaranto e rossa, colori derivati dai colori dello stemma della Santa Sede), i due colori tradizionali del Senato e del Popolo romano, che vennero tuttavia sostituiti con il bianco e il giallo nel 1808.
- ^ "Bandiera pontificia" (in Spanish). Estado de la Ciudad del Vaticano. Archived from the original on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 2024-03-09.
En el pasado, la bandera del Estado pontificio era de color amarillo y granate (o mejor dicho, carmesì y rojo, colores relacionados con el escudo de la Santa Sede), dos colores tradicionales del Senado y del Pueblo romano.
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Term (coined by Petrarch
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The Babylonian Captivity, 1309–1377
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(...) under Giuseppe Garibaldi to overthrow the Neapolitan Bourbons. After defeating a Neapolitan force at Calatafirmi, Garibaldi captured Palermo after three days of street fighting.
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1332 John XXII vicars.
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(help) - Watanabe, Morimichi (2013). Izbicki, Thomas M.; Christianson, Gerald (eds.). Nicholas of Cusa – A Companion to his Life and his Times. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1409482-536. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-13. Retrieved 2020-11-18.