Papermaking
Papermaking is the manufacture of
In papermaking, a dilute suspension consisting mostly of separate cellulose fibres in water is drained through a sieve-like screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is further removed from this sheet by pressing, sometimes aided by suction or vacuum, or heating. Once dry, a generally flat, uniform and strong sheet of paper is achieved.
Before the invention and current widespread adoption of automated machinery, all paper was made by hand, formed or laid one sheet at a time by specialized laborers. Even today those who make paper by hand use tools and technologies quite similar to those existing hundreds of years ago, as originally developed in China and other regions of Asia, or those further modified in Europe. Handmade paper is still appreciated for its distinctive uniqueness and the skilled craft involved in making each sheet, in contrast with the higher degree of uniformity and perfection at lower prices achieved among industrial products.
History
Hemp paper had been used in China for wrapping and padding since the eighth century BCE.[1] Paper with legible Chinese writings on it has been dated to 8 BCE.[2] The traditional inventor attribution is of
In the 8th century, papermaking spread to the
Traditional
In Europe, papermaking moulds using metallic wire were developed, and features like the watermark were well established by 1300 CE, while hemp and linen rags were the main source of pulp, cotton eventually taking over after Southern plantations made that product in large quantities.[10] Papermaking was originally not popular in Europe due to not having many advantages over papyrus and parchment. It was not until the 15th century with the invention of the movable type of printing and its demand for paper that many paper mills entered production, and papermaking became an industry.[11][12]
Modern papermaking began in the early 19th century in
Manual
Papermaking, regardless of the scale on which it is done, involves making a dilute suspension of
The method of manual papermaking changed very little over time, despite advances in technologies. The process of manufacturing handmade paper can be generalized into five steps:
- Separating the useful fibre from the rest of raw materials. (e.g. cellulose from wood, cotton, etc.)
- Beating down the fibre into pulp
- Adjusting the colour, mechanical, chemical, biological, and other properties of the paper by adding special chemical premixes
- Screening the resulting solution
- Pressing and drying to get the actual paper
Screening the fibre involves using a mesh made from non-corroding and inert material, such as brass, stainless steel or a synthetic fibre, which is stretched in a paper mould, a wooden frame similar to that of a window. The size of the paper is governed by the open area of the frame. The mould is then completely submerged in the furnish, then pulled, shaken and drained, forming a uniform coating on the screen. Excess water is then removed, the wet mat of fibre laid on top of a damp cloth or felt in a process called "couching". The process is repeated for the required number of sheets. This stack of wet mats is then pressed in a hydraulic press. The fairly damp fibre is then dried using a variety of methods, such as vacuum drying or simply air drying. Sometimes, the individual sheet is rolled to flatten, harden, and refine the surface. Finally, the paper is then cut to the desired shape or the standard shape (A4, letter, legal, etc.) and packed.[16]
The wooden frame is called a "deckle". The deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavy, called "deckle edges", one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury. The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, usually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the sideways wires together are called "chain lines". Watermarks are created by weaving a design into the wires in the mould. Handmade paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines.
The International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA) is the world-leading association for handmade paper artists.
Handmade paper is also prepared in laboratories to study papermaking and in paper mills to check the quality of the production process. The "handsheets" made according to TAPPI Standard T 205 [17] are circular sheets 15.9 cm (6.25 in) in diameter and are tested for paper characteristics such as brightness, strength and degree of sizing.[18] Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper.[citation needed]
Industrial
A modern paper mill[
Another type of paper machine, invented by John Dickinson in 1809, makes use of a cylinder
Papermaking continues to be of
Notable papermakers
While papermaking was considered a lifework, exclusive profession for most of its history, the term "notable papermakers" is often not strictly limited to those who actually make paper. Especially in the hand papermaking field there is currently an overlap of certain celebrated paper art practitioners with their other artistic pursuits, while in academia the term may be applied to those conducting research, education, or conservation of books and paper artifacts. In the industrial field it tends to overlap with science, technology and engineering, and often with management of the pulp and paper business itself.
Some well-known and recognized papermakers have found fame in other fields, to the point that their papermaking background is almost forgotten. One of the most notable examples might be that of the first humans that achieved flight, the Montgolfier brothers, where many accounts barely mention the paper mill their family owned, although paper used in their balloons did play a relevant role in their success, as probably did their familiarity with this light and strong material.
Key inventors include James Whatman, Henry Fourdrinier, Heinrich Voelter and Carl Daniel Ekman, among others.
By the mid-19th century, making paper by hand was extinct in the United States.[21] By 1912, fine book printer and publisher, Dard Hunter had reestablished the craft of fine hand paper making but by the 1930s the craft had lapsed in interest again.[21] When artist Douglass Howell returned to New York City after serving in World War II, he established himself as a fine art printmaker and discovered that art paper was in short supply.[21] During the 1940s and 1950s, Howell started reading Hunter's books on paper making, as well as he learned about hand paper making history, conducted paper making research, and learned about printed books.[22][23]
See also
- pre-ColumbianCentral America
- Bookbinding
- Museums: Williams Paper Museum, Basel Paper Mill
- Stickies (papermaking)
Notes and references
- ^ a b Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 122.
- ^ "World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter 11 August 2006" (PDF).
- ^ Papermaking. (2007). In: Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 1.
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 123.
- ^ S2CID 142232828.
- ^ Loveday, Helen. Islamic paper: a study of the ancient craft. Archetype Publications, 2001.
- ISBN 90-04-14649-0.
- ^ Jonathan M. Bloom (February 12, 2010). "Paper in the Medieval Mediterranean World" (PDF). Early Paper: Techniques and Transmission – A workshop at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) [dead link] - ^ ISBN 0-486-23619-6.
- ^ "The Atlas of Early Printing". atlas.lib.uiowa.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-02-15. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 4.
- ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8pp. 25–30
- OCLC 41895821.
- doi:10.1002/1435369762/quest7.a18_545.pub4 (inactive 31 January 2024).)
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ^ "Making Paper By Hand". TAPPI. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015. Retrieved 2016-04-30.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Forming Handsheets for Physical Tests of Pulp" (PDF). TAPPI. Retrieved 2016-04-30.
- ISBN 0-12-097360-X.
- ISBN 978-1-56676-544-2
- ^ "Cylinder machine device". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-05.
- ^ a b c "Douglas Morse Howell, Papermaking Champion". North American Hand Papermakers. Retrieved 2021-02-05.
- ^ Schreyer, Alice D. (1988). East-West, Hand Papermaking Traditions and Innovations: An Exhibition Catalogue. University of Delaware Library. Hugh M. Morris Library, University of Delaware Library.
- ISBN 978-981-261-628-9.
24. Longwood L.C. "Science and practice of hand made paper": (2004). 25. Westerlund L.C. "Fibre options for the sustainable development of the Australian Paper and Pulp Industry": (2004)
External links
- The Harrison Elliott Collection at the Library of Congress has paper specimens, personal papers and research material relating to the history of papermaking
- The Center for Book and Paper Arts at Columbia College Chicago hosted an exhibition on the contemporary art of hand papermaking in 2014
- The International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA)
- The Arnold Yates Paper collection at University of Maryland Libraries
- How to make a Carton: history of paper making in Australia, John Oxley Libraryblog