in the south had revived their fortunes and had defeated the Chola armies and occupied their ancestral lands.
During Parantaka II's reign, the foundations were laid for the success of the Chola Empire a generation later. A few territories in the north were recovered. The
Rashtrakutas
and successfully regained Tondaimandalam.
Early life
According to the Anbil plates Arinjaya was succeeded by his son. After coming to power Sundara Chola aka Parantaka II first directed his attention to the south against Vira Pandya, who had repulsed Gandaraditya's attempt to restore Chola supremacy in the Pandya country.[10]
Pandyan War
Territories under Parantaka II
Immediately after becoming king, Parantaka II's attention was directed towards the growing strength of the Pandyas in the south. Vira Pandya, having repulsed Gandaraditya's attempts to restore Chola supremacy in the Pandyan kingdom, was ruling as an independent potentate. The invading Chola army met the Pandyas at Chevur.
The Leyden
Aditya Karikalan (also referred to as Aditha II) defeated Vira Pandya and made him flee to the hills surrounding the battlefield.[11]
The young son Aditha, who took to the battlefield at the age of "twelve" and who was a "very abhimanyu" in valour, is profusely praised for having conducted himself in battlefield with as much ease as he was at "military training sessions".
It is also possible that
Aditya Karikalan killed Vira Pandya in that battle. Aditha's inscriptions use the epithet "Vira Pandyan Thalai Konda Adithha Karikalan" - "...took the head of Vira Pandya".[citation needed] After the battle of Chevur, Parantaka II's armies continued their thrust into the Pandya country. The Pandya king had the Sinhalese king Mahinda IV
as his ally and the Lankan troops supported the Pandya army in the battlefield c. 959 CE. Parantaka II's armies also invaded Lanka to neutralise this support. The especially wicked nature of this coalition is noted by chola panegyrists to be "wicked force of age of kali, that were duly uprooted by the king.". As a procedure for de-recognizing the rogue kingdoms Parantaka II also seized the royal insignia of pandyans like fish emblem, throne, gem studded crown and ancient pearl necklace.
Sundara Chola called himself Maduraikonda Rajakesari, that is the Royal Lion who took Madurai and Madhurantaka (destroyer of Madurai) in order to commemorate his victories over the Pandyas.[12]
Although the Chola armies won the battle, the war was still not won. Parantaka II did not succeed in re-establishing the Chola power over the Pandya lands.
Success against Rashtrakutas (Recovery of Tondaimandalam)
Parantaka II next concentrated in his war against
Rashtrakutas. Some documents provide an interesting account of military acumen and gallantry exhibited during the war by a certain chola commander belonging to one of the 98 divisions of troop velaikkaras. The commander who is praised to be a devotee at feet of lord at thillai and who was "a very murugan at war", is credited to have on two occasions almost singlehandedly pulverized big battalions of the enemy thereby causing their defeat. This commander who is glorified in these deccan wars is at the instance of lord finally given up his uniform to become a saint at tirruvottriyur and take the name ottriyur atikalar there upon producing some very good works on saiva siddantam prior to attaining lord's beatitude.Central shrine at Vedapureeswarar temple
Sri Lankan Expedition
Sundara Chola Parantaka also waged war against the Sinhala ruler in
Parantaka II's last days appear to have been clouded by a personal tragedy, as his son and parakesi
Aditya II was assassinated by a group of conspirators. The Udayarkudi inscription, made by one Bharathan alias Vyazha Gajamallan, names Soman, Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan as the conspirators/traitors responsible for the assassination.[15][16]
There is also a conjecture by one R.V. Srinivasan made in 1971 that Rajaraja I and his sister Kundavai were responsible for the killing.[17] However, no physical evidence to support this claim has been found to date.
Uttama’s ascension
After the assassination of Aditya II, it seems that
Rajaraja I
), Parantaka II's second son did not protest, anxious to avoid a civil war. It was apparently part of the compromise that Uttama was to succeed the throne only if he accepted to be succeeded, not by his own children but by Arulmozhivarman. The Thiruvalangadu copperplate inscription states that Madhurantaka Uttama Chola made Arulmozhi the heir-apparent.
Parantaka II's death and legacy
Parantaka II, heart broken by the personal tragedy died in
Aditya II, which describe reforms carried out professionally at universities, councils, military and navy. Parantaka was well supported by his management councillors. Thus we know from an inscription of his how a certain Aniruddha Brahmarayan
who was a follower of jaiminiya sutra of samaveda(jaiminiya sutrattu aniruddha bhramarayar) and who was a "servitor at the feet of lord of river girt arankam(srirangam),i.e lord vishnu", who belonged to royal council being felicitated for selfless service.
One of his queens, Vanavanmahadevi, a princess from the clan of
Malaiyaman, committed suicide by jumping into the fire, in spite for serval oppositions by the noble men at the king's death and her image was perhaps installed at the Thanjavur Temple by her daughter Kundavai.[19] Another queen, a Chera
princess survived him until 1001 CE.
During Parantaka II's reign, literature Tamil received encouragement. The Buddhist work on Tamil grammar, Virasoliyam eulogises him as a patron of letters and of Buddhism. The eulogy furnishes evidence for the friendly relationship between the Chola monarchs and the Buddhists.
(Verse 2) ..The King named Siruvela who was the light of the Irungola race and foremost(member) in the family of the daughter of the (king) Pirantaka gave with delight a lamp to Hara(Siva) whose abode was at Srivisalura.
(Verse 3) May the Maheswaras protect the lamp presented with delight in the prosperous fifth year of(reign of) the best of kings, the illustrious Sundara Chola, by him who bore the name Siruvela, to Isa(Siva) who was pleased to dwell in the abode (temple) of Srivisalura(situated) in the virtuous village named Nimbagrhara on the northern bank of the (river) Kaveri.[20]
The term foremost in the family of the king Pirantaka's daughter indicates the alliance between the
Irukkuvel families and the chief Siriyavela might have been the King's son-in-law or his daughter's father-in-law.[21][13]
A record in the seventh year of the Perumal Sundara Choladeva, who drove the Pandya into the forest.
Records gift of lands for offerings to the temple of Srikudittittai-Udaiyar in Vadagarai-vembarrur by the king's general (senapati) Pirantakan Siriyavelar alias Tirukkarrali Pichchan.[22]
In popular culture
Sundara Chola, forms a main character in Kalki Krishnamurthy’s 1955 historical fiction novel Ponniyin Selvan. In his story, Kalki imagines Parantaka II to be a powerless ruler - handicapped by a debilitating illness. He is caught between opposing forces of his love for his children and his dependence on powerful courtiers.
^N. Subrahmanian (1993). Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336. Ennes. p. 130.
^Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985
^Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35
^A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41
^N. Subrahmanian (1993). Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336. Ennes. p. 130.
^International Association of Tamil Research, International Institute of Tamil Studies (1976). Journal of Tamil Studies, Issues 9-10. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 78.
^Xavier Pinto, E.G. Myall. Glimpses of History. Frank Brothers. p. 91.
^kamlesh kapur. Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India: History. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 592.
^Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). The Cholas (revised 2nd ed.). University of Madras. p. 153.
^N. Sethuraman (1980). Early Cholas: Mathematics Reconstructs the Chronology. Sethuraman. p. 68.
^Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman (1985). Rājarājeśvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art. Mudgala Trust. p. 14.
^ abWijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga (2003). Sri Lanka and the Choḷas. Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers. pp. 60–61.
^K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar (1938). A Manual of the Pudukkóttai State, Volume 1. Printed at the Sri Brihadamba State Press. p. 604.
^Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. No 27, The Udayarkudi Inscription of Rajakesarivarman. Epigraphia India Vol XXI. pp. 165–170.
^Kudavoiyal, Balasubramanian (11 November 2018). "Udayarkudi Inscription – An In-depth Assessment ( Translated article)". Retrieved 15 May 2023. The narrative of the above inscription upon examination makes it very clear that that only other three brothers namely Soman ( his alias is not decipherable in the inscription), Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan were the culprits/traitors who assassinated Aditya Karikala and since the other referred individuals are dealt with as 'others' ('evargal') it becomes obvious that these 'others' were only relatives of the 3 brothers and were not complicit otherwise to the said murder.
^Srinivasan, R.V. A Note on the Accession of Raja Raja. Vivekananda College Magazine. p. 13.
^S. R. Balasubrahmanyam. Early Chola Temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985. Orient Longman, 1971 - Architecture, Chola - 351 pages. p. 106.
^B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi (2009). Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation. Bharathi Puthakalayam. pp. 135–136.
^Rao Sahib H. Krishna Sastri (1987). South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil Country. The Director General, Archaeological Survey On India, Janpath, New Delhi. pp. 257–258.
^S. R. Balasubrahmanyam (1966). Volume 1 of Early Chola Art. Asia publ. house. p. 171.
^V. Rangacharya (1985). A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume II, with Notes and References. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. p. 1246.
References
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16 By Museums Association of India
A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District By T. V. Mahalingam
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