Parent
A parent is either the progenitor of a child or, in
A parent can also be elaborated as an ancestor removed one generation. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.[1][2][3] Examples of third biological parents include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.[4]
The most common types of parents are
Types
Biological
A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their
Mother
A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from conception, by giving birth to, or raising the individual in the role of a parent.[8] More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.[9]
Father
A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.[10] It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the sperm, which results in the birth of the child.
Grandparent
Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a
Paternity issues
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth and pregnancy, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.
Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several
A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as
Roles and responsibilities
Guardianship
A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for developmentally disabled adults.
Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child.
Parenting
Gender and gender mix
A child has at least one biological
The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with
Genetics
Parent–offspring conflict
An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.
Empathy
David Haig has argued that human fetal genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The placenta, for example, secretes allocrine hormones that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes which counteract this effect.[18]
Having children and happiness
In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.[19]
See also
- Adoption
- Bateman's principle
- Child abuse
- Cinderella effect
- Egg and sperm donation
- Foster care
- Infant
- Infanticide
- Narcissistic parent
- Non-paternity event
- Parental abuse by children
- Parental age (disambiguation)
- Parental bullying of children
- Parental investment
- Parental narcissistic abuse
- Parents bullying teachers
- Paternal bond
- Paternity (law)
- Reciprocal socialization
- Stepparent
- Surrogate mother
- Teachers bullying parents
- Honour thy father and thy mother
References
- ^ Gallagher, James (2013-06-28). "UK government backs three-person IVF". BBC News. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ Nadine Taub; Beth Anne Wolfson; Carla M. Palumbo. The Law of Sex Discrimination. p. 374.
- ^ Browne C. Lewis (2012). Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination. p. 136.
- ^ Louise I. Gerdes (2009). Reproductive Technologies. p. 25.
- ^ "mother definition". www.oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on October 10, 2012.
- ^ Marian S Harris (2014). Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare. p. 2.
- ^ Bernard Roberts (2005). Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners. p. 149.
- ^ "Definition from". Allwords.com. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ Bromham, David (1990). Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine. p. 57.
- ^ "TheFreeDictionary". Retrieved 2014-10-07.
- ISBN 978-0-631-21451-9.
- ^ Lamb, Michael (2009). Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda & Kane, Graeme. "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-04. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ "In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8.
- ^ Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385.
- JSTOR 3881986.
- S2CID 38641716. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-07-19.
- PMID 23440941.
External links
- National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI) – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, after-school, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Roman Catholicview of the position of parents. .