Paris Foreign Missions Society

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Paris Foreign Missions Society
Société des Missions Etrangères de Paris[1]
AbbreviationPost-nominal letters: M.E.P.[1]
Formation1658; 366 years ago (1658)
FounderBishop François Pallu, MEP[2]
TypeSociety of Apostolic Life of Pontifical Right (for Men)
Headquarters128 rue du Bac, 75341 Paris CEDEX 07, France[1]
Membership
189 members (178 priests) as of 2018[3]
Superior General
Vincent Sénéchal[3]
AffiliationsCatholic Church
Websitehttps://missionsetrangeres.com/

The Society of Foreign Missions of Paris (

missionary organization. It is not a religious institute, but an organization of secular priests and lay persons dedicated to missionary work in foreign lands.[4]

The Society of Foreign Missions of Paris was established 1658–63. In 1659, instructions for establishment of the Paris Foreign Missions Society were given by Rome's

Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. This marked the creation of a missionary institution that, for the first time, did not depend on the control of the traditional missionary and colonial powers of Spain or Portugal.[5] In the 350 years since its foundation, the institution has sent more than 4,200 missionary priests to Asia and North America. Their mission is to adapt to local customs and languages, develop a native clergy, and keep close contacts with Rome.[6]

In the 19th century, local persecutions of missionary priests of the Paris Foreign Missions Society were often a pretext for French military intervention in Asia.

French campaign against Korea
.

Today, the Paris Foreign Missions Society remains an active institution in the evangelization of Asia.

Background

Rue du Bac
, Paris.
Symbol of the Missions Étrangères de Paris.

The traditional colonial powers of Spain and Portugal had initially received from the

Padroado Real in Portuguese and Patronato real in Spanish. After some time however, Rome grew dissatisfied with the Padroado system, due to its limited means, strong involvement with politics, and dependence on the kings of Spain and Portugal for any decision.[8]

From a territorial standpoint also, Portugal had been losing ground against the new colonial powers of England and the Dutch Republic, meaning that it was becoming less capable of evangelizing new territories.[9] In territories that it used to control, Portugal had seen some disasters; for instance, Japanese Christianity was eradicated from around 1620.[10]

Finally, Catholic officials had doubts about the efficacy of religious orders, such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits or Barnabites, since they were highly vulnerable in case of persecutions. They did not seem able to develop local clergy, who would be less vulnerable to state persecution. Sending bishops to develop a strong local clergy seemed to be the solution to achieve future expansion:[10]

"We have all reason to fear that what happened to the Church of Japan could also happen to the Church of Annam, because these kings, in Tonkin as well as in Cochinchina, are very powerful and accustomed to war... It is necessary that the Holy See, by its own movement, give pastors to these Oriental regions where Christians multiply in a marvellous way, lest, without bishops, these men die without sacrament and manifestly risk damnation." Alexandre de Rhodes.[10]

As early as 1622

Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, commonly known as Propaganda) with the objective of bringing non-Catholic Christians to the Catholic faith, and also inhabitants of the American continent and Asia.[8] In order to do so, Rome resurrected the system of Apostolic vicars, who would report directly to Rome in their missionary efforts, and would be responsible to create a native clergy.[11]

In the field, violent conflicts would erupt between the Padroado and the Propaganda during the 17th and 18th centuries.[8] (When the first missionaries of the Paris Foreign Missions Society were sent to the Far East, the Portuguese missionaries were ordered to capture them and send them to Lisbon).[12] The creation of the Paris Foreign Missions Society was well-aligned with Rome's efforts to develop the role of the Propaganda.[13]

Establishment

See also: French school of spirituality
The French Jesuit Alexandre de Rhodes is at the origin of the creation of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.

The creation of the Paris Foreign Missions Society was initiated when the Jesuit priest

Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement for the establishment of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.[15][16] Alexander de Rhodes found secular clergy volunteers in Paris in the persons of François Pallu and Pierre Lambert de la Motte and later Ignace Cotolendi, the first members of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, who were sent to the Far-East as Apostolic vicariate.[17][18][19]

Due to the strong opposition of Portugal and the death of Pope Innocent X the project was stalled for several years however, until the candidates to the missions decided to go by themselves to Rome in June 1657.[9]

Appointment of missionary Bishops

François Pallu, founding father of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.
Pierre Lambert de la Motte (1624–1679)

On 29 July 1658, the two chief founders of the Paris Foreign Missions Society were appointed as bishops in the

Huguang, Sichuan, Guangxi), for Lambert de la Motte, Cochinchina and five provinces of southeastern China (Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Hainan).[20] In 1660 the third founder was appointed as Cotolendi, Bishop of Metellopolis, Vicar Apostolic of Nanjing, with also five provinces of China,[20] namely Beijing, Shanxi, Shandong, Korea and Tartary
.

All of them were nominated Bishops

Metellopolis etc...), receiving long-disappeared bishopric titles from areas that had been lost, in order not to compromise contemporary bishopric titles and avoid conflicts with the bishoprics established through the padroado system.[13] In 1658 also, François de Laval was nominated Vicar Apostolic of Canada,[21] and Bishop of Petra in partibus infidelium, becoming the first Bishop of New France, and in 1663 he would found the Séminaire de Québec with the support of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.[22]

The Society itself ("Assemblée des Missions") was formally established by the Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement in 1658.[23] The object of the new society was and is still the evangelization of non-Christian countries, by founding churches and raising up a native clergy under the jurisdiction of the bishops. The Society was officially recognized in 1664.[24] The creation of the Paris Foreign Missions Society coincided with the establishment of the French East India Company.

Ignace Cotolendi (1630–1662)

In order to dispatch the three missionaries to Asia, the Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement established a trading company (the "Compagnie de Chine", founded 1660). A ship, the Saint-Louis, was built in the Netherlands by the shipowner Fermanel, but the ship foundered soon after being launched.[25] At the same time, the establishment of a trading company and the perceived threat of French missionary efforts to Asia was met with huge opposition by the Jesuits, the Portuguese, the Dutch and even the Propaganda, leading to the issuing of an interdiction of the Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement by Cardinal Mazarin in 1660.[26] In spite of these events, the King, the Assembly of the French Clergy, the Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement and private donors accepted to finance the effort, and the three bishop managed to depart, although they now had to travel on land.[26]

The three bishops chosen for Asia left France (1660–62) to go to their respective missions, and crossed

Siam Ayutthaya after 24 months overland, and Cotolendi died upon arrival in India on 6 August 1662.[6] Siam thus became the first country to receive the evangelization efforts of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, to be followed by new missions years later in Cochinchina, Tonkin and parts of China.[6]

Founding principles

Chapel of the Paris Foreign Missions Society

The mission had the objective of adapting to local customs, establishing a native

Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
(known as the "Propaganda"):

"Here is the principal reason which determined the Sacred Congregation to send you as Bishops in these regions. It is that you endeavour, by all possible means and methods, to educate young people so as to make them capable of receiving

priesthood."

— Extract from the 1659 Instructions, given to Pallu and Lambert de la Motte by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.[27]

Instructions were also given to the effect that respecting the habits of the countries to be evangelized was paramount, a guiding principle of the missions ever since:

"Do not act with

zeal, do not put forward any arguments to convince these peoples to change their rites, their customs or their usages, except if they are evidently contrary to the religion and morality. What would be more absurd than to bring France, Spain, Italy or any other European country to the Chinese? Do not bring to them our countries, but instead bring to them the faith, a faith that does not reject or hurt the rites, nor the usages of any people, provided that these are not distasteful, but that instead keeps and protects them."

— Extract from the 1659 Instructions, given to Pallu and Lambert de la Motte by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.[28]

Establishment on Rue du Bac, Paris

The Paris Foreign Missions Society in 1663.
The Paris Foreign Missions Society in 1739 with its park (detail of 1739 map of Paris by Turgot).
The Chapel at the Paris Foreign Missions Society, established in 1691.
Louis XIV
commemorative medal of the first stone of the Mission, 1683.

The Seminary (Séminaire des Missions Étrangères) was created in March 1663.

Rue du Bac.[23] On 10 March 1664, Vincent de Meur
was nominated as the first director of the seminary, and officially became superior of the seminary on 11 June 1664.

The seminary was established so that the society might recruit members and administer its property, through the actions of the

Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement
and by the priests whom the vicars Apostolic had appointed their agents. This house, whose directors were to form young priests to the apostolic life and transmit to the bishops the offerings made by charity, was, and still is situated in Paris in the Rue du Bac.

Known from the beginning as the Seminary of Foreign Missions, it secured the approval of Pope Alexander VII, and the legal recognition of the French Government and Louis XIV in 1663. In 1691 the chapel was established, and in 1732 the new, larger, building was completed.[23]

Another wing, perpendicular to the 1732 one, was added in the 19th century to accommodate the great increase in members of the Seminary.

1658–1800

The chief events of this period were: the publication of the book Institutions apostoliques, which contains the germ of the principles of the rule, the foundation of the general seminary in

Lovers of the Cross", the establishment of rules among catechists, and the ordination of thirty native priests. Between 1660 and 1700 about 100 missionaries were sent to Asia.[4]

Siam

See also:
France-Thailand relations
The Siamese embassy to Louis XIV, led by Kosa Pan in 1686, was a result of the missionary efforts of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.
Chevalier de Chaumont presents a letter from Louis XIV
to King Narai in 1685.

The Paris Foreign Missions Society started its work in

Burma in 1766.[31]

The missionary work also had political effects: through their initiative a more active trade was established among Indo-China, the

Siamese revolution, which adversely affected the missions. Louis Laneau of the society was involved in these events.[6]
He was imprisoned by the government for two years, with half of the members of the Seminar, until he was allowed to resume his activities.

In 1702, Artus de Lionne, Bishop of Rosalie, and missionary of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, brought Arcadio Huang to France as one of the first Chinese men there. He established the basis for the study of the Chinese language in France.

In the second half of the 18th century, the society was charged with the missions which the Jesuits had possessed in India prior to suppression of the order in Portugal. Many of the Jesuits remained in Asia. The missions took on a new life, especially in Sichuan (see Catholic Church in Sichuan), under bishops Pottier [fr] and Dufresse, and in Cochinchina.

Cochinchina

Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (the future Gia Long
).
See also:
France-Vietnam relations and French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh

In Cochinchina,

Tây Sơn
.

French revolution

At the end of the 18th century, the French Revolution halted the growth of the society, which had previously been very rapid. At that time it had six bishops, a score of missionaries, assisted by 135 native priests; in the various missions there were nine seminaries with 250 students, and 300,000 Christians.[7] Each year the number of baptisms rose on an average of 3000 to 3500; that of infant baptisms in articulo mortis was more than 100,000.

Nineteenth century

Charles Louis de Fredy de Coubertin
.

On 23 March 1805, Napoleon signed a decree reinstating the Paris Foreign Missions Society.[34] In 1809 however, following a conflict with the Pope, Napoleon cancelled his decision. The Missions would be firmly re-established through a decree by Louis XVIII in March 1815.[35]

Several causes contributed to the rapid growth of the society in the 19th century; chiefly the charity of the Propagation of the Faith and the

francs
, each mission had its general needs and works allowance, which varied according to its importance, and could amount to from 10,000 to 30,000 francs.

1856 departures of MEP missionaries.
1864 departures of MEP missionaries. The four on the left would become martyrs in Korea.

The second cause was persecution. Fifteen missionaries died in prison or were beheaded during the 17th and 18th centuries and the beginning of the 19th century; but after that those killed among the missionaries were very numerous. (See Martyr Saints of China). Altogether, about 200 MEP missionaries died of violent death. Among them 23 were beatified, of whom 20 were canonized,[36] with an additional 3 in 2000.

Authors such as

Génie du christianisme, also contributed to the recovery of the militant spirit of Catholicism, after the troubles of the French Revolution.[37]

By 1820, the territory of the Missions, which included India since the prohition of the

Burma, Malaysia etc...[7]

In the 19th century, the local persecutions of missionary priests of the Paris Foreign Missions Society was often a pretext for French military intervention in Asia,

Indochina and China.[7]

Another cause of the progress of the missionaries was the ease and frequency of communication in consequence of the invention of steam and the opening of the

French Campaign against Korea
.

Vietnam

See also:
France-Vietnam relations
Martyrdom of Joseph Marchand in Vietnam in 1835.

In 1825, emperor

Pierre Borie
in 1838. These events served in France to stoke a desire among young men to intervene and protect the Catholic faith.

Pierre Borie
, 24 November 1838, in Tonkin, Vietnam. Vietnamese painting.

Ming Man's successor, Thiệu Trị, upheld the anti-Catholic policy of his predecessor. In 1843, the French Foreign Minister François Guizot sent a fleet to Vietnam under Admiral Jean-Baptiste Cécille and Captain Charner,.[39] The action also was related to the British successes in China in 1842, and France hoped to be able to establish trade with China from the south. The pretext was to support British efforts in China, and to fight the persecution of French missionaries in Vietnam.[40]

In 1847, Cécille sent two warships (Gloire and Victorieuse) under Captain Lapierre to Da Nang (Tourane) in Vietnam to obtain the release of two imprisoned French missionaries, Bishop Dominique Lefèbvre (imprisoned for a second time as he had re-entered Vietnam illegally) and Duclos, and freedom of worship for Catholics in Vietnam.[39][41] As negotiations drew on without results, on April 15, 1847, a fight named the Bombardment of Đà Nẵng erupted between the French fleet and Vietnamese ships, three of which were sunk as a result. The French fleet sailed away.[41]

Other missionaries were martyred during the reign of Emperor

French conquest of Cochinchina
.

Martyrdom of Jean-Charles Cornay, 1837.

Ten martyrs of the M.E.P. were canonized by

martyrs of Vietnam, including 11 Dominican
priests, 37 Vietnamese priests, and 59 Vietnamese laics:

  • Native priests of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, in western Tonkin.
    Native priests of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, in western Tonkin.
  • Jules Paspin, of the MEP. Died of malnutrition in Vietnam in 1856.
    Jules Paspin, of the MEP. Died of malnutrition in Vietnam in 1856.

Korea

See also:
French Campaign against Korea, 1866
Laurent-Joseph-Marius Imbert of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, Saint, martyred in Korea (21 September 1839).

In the mid-19th century that the first western Catholic missionaries began to enter Korea. This was done by stealth, either via the Korean border with Manchuria or the Yellow Sea. These French missionaries of the Paris Foreign Missions Society arrived in Korea in the 1840s to proselytize to a growing Korean flock that had in fact independently introduced Catholicism into Korea but needed ordained ministers.

1839 persecutions

On 26 April 1836,

Capsa. On 14 May 1837, he was ordained Titular Bishop of Capsa and crossed secretly from Manchuria to Korea the same year. On 10 August 1839, Bishop Imbert, who was secretly going about his missionary work, was betrayed. He was taken to Seoul where he was tortured to reveal the whereabouts of foreign missionaries. He wrote a note to his fellow missionaries, Pierre-Philibert Maubant and Jacques-Honoré Chastan, asking them to surrender to the Korean authorities as well. They were taken before an interrogator and questioned for three days to reveal the names and whereabouts of their converts. As torture failed to break them down, they were sent to another prison and beheaded on 21 September 1839 at Saenamteo
. Their bodies remained exposed for several days but were finally buried on Noku Mountain.

1866 persecutions

Bishop

King Gojong
in 1864. By the time the Heungseon Daewongun assumed de facto control of the government in 1864 there were twelve French Paris Foreign Missions Society priests living and preaching in Korea and an estimated 23,000 native Korean converts.

Bishop Berneux of the Paris Foreign Missions Society was tortured and then beheaded on March 7, 1866.[46]

In January, 1866 Russian ships appeared on the east coast of Korea demanding trading and residency rights in what seemed an echo of the demands made on China by other western powers. Native Korean Christians, with connections at court, saw in this an opportunity to advance their cause and suggested an alliance between France and Korea to repel the Russian advances, suggesting further that this alliance could be negotiated through Bishop Berneux. The Heungseon Daewongun seemed open to this idea, though it is uncertain whether this was ruse to bring the head of the Korean Catholic Church out into the open. Berneux was summoned to the capital, but upon his arrival in February 1866, he was seized and executed. A roundup then began of the other French Catholic priests and native converts.

Pierre Henri Dorié
of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, also martyred in Korea in 1866.

As a result of the Korean dragnet all but three of the French missionaries were captured and executed: among them were Siméon Berneux, Antoine Daveluy, Just de Bretenières,

French Campaign against Korea, 1866
.

Ten martyrs of the M.E.P. were canonized by John-Paul II, 6 May 1984, as part of 103 canonized martyrs of Korea, including André Kim Tegong, the first Korean priest, and 92 Korean laics:

China

See also:
Martyrs of China
Paris Foreign Missions Society priests in Guangdong and Guangxi in 1860: Étienne Alibert (1835–1868) and Louis Jolly (1836–1878)
The mission in the Chinese province of Guizhou, 1876
Martyrdom of Auguste Chapdelaine in 1856

Auguste Chapdelaine, who was preaching illegally in China, was imprisoned, tortured and killed by Chinese authorities in 1856. This event, named the "Father Chapdelaine Incident" became the pretext for the French military intervention in the Second Opium War.[48][49][50]

Three missionaries of the M.E.P. were canonized by Pope

Lazarist
, 1 Italian priest of the Foreign Missions of Milan, 4 Chinese priests and 83 Chinese laics:

Japan

See also:
France-Japan relations (19th century) and Catholic Church in Japan
MEP Fathers and Seminarists in Southern Japan in 1881.

After the suppression of Christianity in Japan from around 1620 and nearly two century of strictly enforced seclusion thereafter, various contacts occurred from the middle of the 19th century as France was trying to expand its influence in Asia. After the signature of the Treaty of Nanking by Great Britain in 1842, both France and the United States tried to increase their efforts in the Orient.

The first attempts at resuming contacts occurred with the

Vicar Apostolic of Japan.[51]
Cécille offered the kingdom French protection against British expansionism, but in vain, and only obtained that two missionaries could stay.

Petitjean, of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, first effective Vicar Apostolic of Japan.

Forcade and Ko were picked up to be used as translators in Japan, and Leturdu was left in Tomari, soon joined by Mathieu Adnet. On July 24, 1846, Admiral Cécille arrived in

Nagasaki, but failed in his negotiations and was denied landing, and Bishop Forcade never set foot in mainland Japan.[52] The Ryu-Kyu court in Naha
complained in early 1847 about the presence of the French missionaries, who had to be removed in 1848.

France would have no further contacts with Okinawa for the next 7 years, until news came that Commodore Perry had obtained an agreement with the islands on July 11, 1854, following his treaty with Japan. France sent an embassy under Rear-Admiral Cécille onboard La Virginie in order to obtain similar advantages. A convention was signed on November 24, 1855.

As contacts between France and Japan developed during the Bakumatsu period (on the military side this is the period of the first French military mission to Japan), Japan was formed into a unique Vicariate Apostolic from 1866 until 1876. The Vicariate was administered by Bernard Petitjean, of the Paris Foreign Missions Society (1866–1884).[2]

20th century

The following table shows the state of the missions at the turn of the 20th century:[2]

Missions of Japan and Korea

    • Tokio
    • Nagasaki
    • Osaka
    • Hakodate
    • Korea

Total numbers

  • Catholics, 138,624
  • churches or chapels, 238
  • bishops and missionaries, 166
  • native priests, 48
  • catechists, 517
  • seminaries, 4
  • seminarists, 81
  • communities of men and women, 44, containing 390 persons
  • schools, 161, with 9024 pupils
  • orphanages and work-rooms, 38, with 988 children
  • pharmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 19

Missions of China and Tibet

Total numbers

  • Catholics, 272,792
  • churches or chapels, 1392
  • bishops and missionaries, 408
  • native priests, 191
  • catechists, 998
  • seminaries, 19
  • seminarists, 661
  • communities of men and women, 23, with 222 members
  • schools, 1879, with 31,971 pupils
  • orphanages and work-rooms, 132, with 4134 children
  • pharmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 364

Missions of Eastern Indo-China

    • Tongking
    • Cochinchina
    • Cambodia

Total numbers

  • Catholics, 632,830
  • churches or chapels, 2609
  • bishops and missionaries, 365
  • native priests, 491
  • catechists, 1153
  • seminaries, 14
  • seminarists, 1271
  • communities of men and women, 91, with 2538 persons
  • schools, 1859, with 58,434 pupils
  • orphanages and work-rooms, 106, with 7217 children
  • pharmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 107

Missions of Western Indo-China

Total numbers

  • Catholics, 132,226
  • churches or chapels, 451
  • bishops and missionaries, 199
  • native priests, 42
  • catechists, 242
  • seminaries, 3
  • seminarists, 81
  • communities of men and women, 47, with 529 members
  • schools, 320, with 21,306 pupils
  • orphanages and work-rooms, 132, with 3757 children
  • pharmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 86

Missions of India

Total numbers

  • Catholics, 324,050
  • churches or chapels, 1048
  • bishops and missionaries, 207
  • native priests, 67
  • catechists, 274
  • seminaries, 4
  • seminarists, 80
  • communities of men and women, 54, with 787 members
  • schools, 315, with 18,693 pupils
  • orphanages and work-rooms, 57, with 2046 children
  • pharmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 41

A

Marseilles, France.[2]

Exhibits

Pierre Borie
in captivity.
Kannon, Kirishitan
cult, 17th century Japan. Salle des Martyrs, Paris Foreign Missions Society.

The

Catholic Faith
in the various countries of Asia. Also, historical archives and graphic material are available, regarding the details of the missions. The Salle des Martyrs can be visited for free from Tuesday to Saturday, from 11:00 to 18:30, and on Sundays from 13:00 to 18:00.

Another, much larger, exhibition is located on the ground floor of the main building of the Paris Foreign Missions Society. Established as a temporary exhibition in 2007–2008, it remains in place but is now closed to the general public. It is only opened for visits once a year during the free-access "Journée des Musées Nationaux", although there seem to be plans to make it a permanent exhibition in the near future.

  • Portrait of Vietnamese crown prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh.
    Portrait of Vietnamese crown prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh.
  • Ashes of Pigneau de Behaine.
    Ashes of
    Pigneau de Behaine
    .
  • Pigneau's 1772 Dictionarium Anamitico-Latinum.
    Pigneau's 1772 Dictionarium Anamitico-Latinum.
  • The Society in 1925.
    The Society in 1925.

The park

Stela to the members of the Paris Foreign Missions Society who were martyred in Korea.
Chinese bell brought from Canton by Charles Rigault de Genouilly, now in the park of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.
Chateaubriand
, 120 Rue du Bac, with view on the park of the Paris Foreign Missions Society.

The park of the Paris Foreign Missions Society is the largest private garden in Paris. It houses various significant artifacts, such as a Chinese bell from Canton brought to France by the French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly, a stela to Korean Martyrs and the list of canonized members of the Paris Foreign Missions Society. The park can be visited every Saturday at 15:30.

The French writer

Chateaubriand lived in an apartment 120 Rue du Bac, with a view on the park, a fact he mentions in the last paragraph of his Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe
:

"As I write these last words, my window, which looks west over the gardens of the Foreign Mission, is open: it is six in the morning; I can see the pale and swollen moon; it is sinking over the spire of the

Invalides, scarcely touched by the first golden glow from the East; one might say that the old world was ending, and the new beginning. I behold the light of a dawn whose sunrise I shall never see. It only remains for me to sit down at the edge of my grave; then I shall descend boldly, crucifix in hand, into eternity."

— Chateaubriand Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe Book XLII: Chapter 18[56]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c "Paris Foreign Missions Society (M.E.P.)". GCatholic.org.
  2. ^ a b c d e f  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Society of Foreign Missions of Paris". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  3. ^ a b "Paris Foreign Missions Society (M.E.P.)".
  4. ^ a b Asia in the Making of Europe, p.231
  5. ^ Missions, p.3
  6. ^ a b c d e f Missions, p.4
  7. ^ a b c d e Missions, p.5
  8. ^ a b c Mantienne, p.22
  9. ^ a b Les Missions étrangères, p.30
  10. ^ a b c Les Missions Etrangères, p.25
  11. ^ Mantienne, p.23
  12. ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, p.232
  13. ^ a b Mantienne, p.26
  14. ^ Missions, p.3-4
  15. ^ Mantienne, p.26-28
  16. ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, p.232
  17. ^ Viet Nam By Nhung Tuyet Tran, Anthony Reid p.222
  18. ^ An Empire Divided by James Patrick Daughton, p.31
  19. ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, p.229-230
  20. ^ a b c Les Missions Etrangeres, p.35
  21. ^ Institutional Culture in Early Modern Society By Anne Goldgar, Robert I. p.25 Note 77 [1]
  22. ^ A Bibliography of Canadian Imprints, 1751–1800 by Marie Tremaine p.70 [2]
  23. ^ a b c Mantienne, p.29
  24. ISBN 9780190677602
    . Page 27.
  25. ^ Mantienne, p.28
  26. ^ a b Asia in the Making of Europe, p.232
  27. ^ Les Missions Etrangères, p.37. Original French "Voici la principale raison qui a déterminé la Sacrée Congrégation à vous envoyer revêtus de l'épiscopat dans ces régions. C'est que vous preniez en main, par tous les moyens et méthodes possibles, l'éducation de jeunes gens, de façon à les rendre capable de recevoir le sacerdoce."
  28. ^ Missions, p.5. Original French: "Ne mettez aucun zèle, n'avancez aucun argument pour convaincre ces peuples de changer leurs rites, leurs coutumes et leur moeurs, à moins qu'ils ne soient évidemment contraires à la religion et à la morale. Quoi de plus absurde que de transporter chez les Chinois la france, l'Espagne, l'Italie, ou quelque autre pays d'Europe? N'introduisez pas chez eux nos pays, mais la foi, cette foi qui ne repousse ni ne blesse les rites, ni les usages d'aucun peuple, pourvu qu'ils ne soient pas détestables, mais bien au contraire veut qu'on les garde et les protège."
  29. ^ The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia By Nicholas Tarling, p.191
  30. ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, p.249
  31. ^ a b Les Missions Etrangeres, p.54
  32. ^ Les Missions Etrangeres, p.45
  33. ^ New Terrains in Southeast Asian History, p.294, Abu Talib
  34. ^ Les Missions Etrangeres, p.135. Article No1 of the decree: "Les établissements des Missions, connus sous la dénomination des Missions étrangères, et le séminaire du Saint-Esprit sont rétablis".
  35. ^ Les Missions Etrangeres, p.135
  36. ^ Website of the College General: [3] Archived 2008-07-22 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ Les Missions Etrangeres, p.137
  38. ^ Dragon Ascending By Henry Kamm p.86
  39. ^ a b Chapuis, p.5 Google Books Quote: "Two years later, in 1847, Lefebvre was again captured when he returned to Vietnam. This time Cecille sent captain Lapierre to Da Nang. Whether Lapierre was aware or not that Lefebvre had already been freed and on his way back to Singapore, the French first dismantled masts of some Vietnamese ships. Later on April 14, 1847, in only one hour, the French sank the last five bronze-plated vessels in the bay of Da Nang.
  40. ^ Tucker, p.27
  41. ^ a b Tucker, p.28
  42. ^ Les Missions Etrangeres, p.12
  43. ^ Tucker, p.29
  44. ^ A History of Vietnam, Oscar Chapuis p.195
  45. ^ Tucker, p.29
  46. ^ Source
  47. ^ "It is estimated than 10,000 were killed within a few months" Source Archived 2007-06-10 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ Religion Under Socialism in China by Zhufeng Luo, Chu-feng Lo, Luo Zhufeng p.42: "France started the second Opium War under the pretext of the "Father Chapdelaine Incident." [4]
  49. ^ Taiwan in Modern Times by Paul Kwang Tsien Sih p.105: "The two incidents that eventually caused a war were the Arrow incident and the murder of the French Catholic priest, Abbe Auguste Chapdelaine"
  50. ^ A History of Christian Missions in China p.273 by Kenneth Scott Latourette: "A casus belli was found in an unfortunate incident which had occurred before the Arrow affair, the judicial murder of a French priest, Auguste Chapdelaine" [5]
  51. ^ The Dublin Review, Nicholas Patrick Wiseman [6]
  52. ISBN 0-521-55028-9
    , p.162
  53. ^ Restoration of Béthanie: now the home of Emmanuel Church - Pokfulam, Hong Kong
  54. ISBN 978-988-99438-0-6
  55. ^ "The history of Nazareth which was previously known as Douglas Castle and is now University Hall". Archived from the original on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  56. ^ Chateaubriand Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe Book XLII: Chapter 18

References

Further reading

  • Adrien Launay (1898) Histoire des missions de l'Inde, 5 vols.

Related articles

External links

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