Parshvanatha
Parshvanatha | |
---|---|
23rd Tirthankara | |
Other names | Pārśva, Pārasanātha |
Venerated in | Jainism |
Predecessor | Neminatha |
Successor | Mahavira |
Symbol | Snake[1] |
Height | 9 cubits (13.5 feet) [2] |
Age | 100 years[3] |
Tree | Ashok |
Color | Green |
Personal information | |
Born | c. 872 BCE[4] |
Died | c. 772 BCE[4] |
Parents |
|
Dynasty | Ikshvaku dynasty |
Parshvanatha (
Parshvanath is one of the earliest Tirthankara who is acknowledged as a historical figure. The Jain sources place him between the 9th and 8th centuries BCE whereas historians consider that he lived in the 8th or 7th century BCE.
Parshvanath was born 273 years before
Parshvanath was born in
According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavir expanded Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ahimsa (lit. 'non-violence') and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy). Parshvanatha did not require celibacy and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments. Śvētāmbara texts, such as section 2.15 of the Acharanga Sutra, say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha (linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition).
Historicity
Parshvanatha is the earliest Jain tirthankara who is generally acknowledged as a historical figure.
Despite the accepted historicity, some historical claims such as the link between him and Mahavira, whether Mahavira renounced in the ascetic tradition of Parshvanatha, and other biographical details have led to different scholarly conclusions.[12]
Parshvanath's biography with Jain texts says that he preceded Mahavira by 273 years and that he lived 100 years.
Doubts about Parshvanatha's historicity are also supported by the oldest Jain texts, which present Mahavira with sporadic mentions of ancient ascetics and teachers without specific names (such as sections 1.4.1 and 1.6.3 of the Acaranga Sutra).[16] The earliest layer of Jain literature on cosmology and universal history pivots around two jinas: the Adinatha (Rishabhanatha) and Mahavira. Stories of Parshvanatha and Neminatha appear in later Jain texts, with the Kalpa Sūtra the first known text. or depth, and the brief descriptions of the tirthankaras are largely modelled on Mahavira.[17] The Kalpa Sūtra is the most ancient known Jain text with the 24 tirthankar, but it lists 20; three, including Parshvanatha, have brief descriptions compared with Mahavira.[17][18] Early archaeological finds, such as the statues and reliefs near Mathura, lack iconography such as lions and serpents.[17][19]
Two of the early bronze images of Parshvanatha can be found on Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya and Patna Museum dating back to the second century BCE to the first century CE.[20] A first century BCE Ayagapata is in State Museum Lucknow containing the image of Parshvanatha.[20] A seventh century CE statue was found in the Asthal Bohar village of Rohtak, Haryana.[21]
Jain biography
Parshvanatha was the 23rd of 24 tirthankaras in Jain tradition.[23]
Life before renunciation
He was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the Hindu month of
Parshvanatha was born with blue-black skin. A strong, handsome boy, he played with the gods of water, hills and trees. At the age of eight, Parshvanatha began practising the twelve basic duties of the adult Jain householder.[30][note 1] He lived as a prince and soldier in Varanasi.[32] The
According to the
Renunciation
At age 30, on the 11th day of the moon's waxing in the month of
After preaching for 70 years, Parshvanath attained moksha at Shikharji on Parasnath hill[note 3][51][52] at the age of 100 on Shravana Shukla Saptami according to Lunar Calendar.[9] His moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) in Jain tradition[25] is celebrated as Moksha Saptami. This day is celebrated on large scale at Parasnath tonk of the mountain, in northern Jharkhand, part of the Parasnath Range[53] by offering Nirvana Laddu (Sugar balls) and reciting of Nirvana Kanda. Parshvanatha has been called purisādāṇīya (beloved of the people) by Jains.[54][55][56]
Previous lives
Jain mythology contains legends about Parshvanatha's human and animal rebirths and the maturing of his soul towards inner harmony like legends found in other Indian religions.[57][note 4] His rebirths include:[59]
- Marubhuti – Vishwabhuti, King Aravinda's prime minister, had two sons; the elder one was Kamath and the younger one was Marubhuti (Parshvanatha). Kamath committed adultery with Marubhuti's wife. The king learned about the adultery, and asked Marubhuti how his brother should be punished; Marubhuti suggested forgiveness. Kamath went into a forest, became an ascetic, and acquired demonic powers to take revenge. Marubhuti went to the forest to invite his brother back home, but Kamath killed Marubhuti by crushing him with a stone. Marubhuti was one of Parshvanatha's earlier rebirths.[60]
- Vajraghosha (Thunder), an elephant – He was then reborn as an elephant because of the "violence of the death and distressing thoughts he harbored at the time of his previous death".[61] Vajraghosha lived in the forests of Vindyachal. Kamath was reborn as a serpent.[62]
King Aravinda, after the death of his minister's son, renounced his throne and led an ascetic life. When an angry Vajraghosha approached Aravinda, the ascetic saw that the elephant was the reborn Marubhuti. Aravinda asked the elephant to give up "sinful acts, remove his demerits from the past, realize that injuring other beings is the greatest sin, and begin practicing the vows". The elephant realized his error, became calm, and bowed at Aravinda's feet. When Vajraghosha went to a river one day to drink, the serpent Kamath bit him. He died peacefully this time, however, without distressing thoughts.[62]
- Sasiprabha – Vajraghosha was reborn as Sashiprabha (Lord of the Moon)[note 5] in the twelfth heaven, surrounded by abundant pleasures. Sashiprabha, however, did not let the pleasures distract him and continued his ascetic life.[66]
- Agnivega – Sashiprabha died, and was reborn as Prince Agnivega ("strength of fire"). After he became king, he met a sage who told him about the impermanence of all things and the significance of a spiritual life. Agnivega realized the importance of religious pursuits, and his worldly life lost its charms. He renounced it to lead an ascetic life, joining the sage's monastic community. Agnivega meditated in the Himalayas, reducing his attachment to the outside world. He was bitten by a snake (the reborn Kamath), but the poison did not disturb his inner peace and he calmly accepted his death.[67]
Agnivega was reborn as a god with a life of "twenty-two oceans of years", and the serpent went to the sixth hell.[68] The soul of Marubhuti-Vajraghosa-Sasiprabha-Agnivega was reborn as Parshvanatha. He saved serpents from torture and death during that life; the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati protected him, and are part of Parshvanath's iconography. [13][69]
Disciples
According to the
According to Digambara tradition (including the Avasyaka niryukti), Parshvanatha had 10 ganadhars and Svayambhu was their leader. Śvētāmbara texts such as the Samavayanga and Kalpa Sūtras cite Pushpakula as the chief aryika of his female followers,[70] but the Digambara Tiloyapannati text identifies her as Suloka or Sulocana.[37] Parshvanatha's nirgrantha (without bonds) monastic tradition was influential in ancient India, with Mahavira's parents part of it as lay householders who supported the ascetics.[72]
Teachings
Texts of the two major Jain sects (Digambara and Śvētāmbara) have different views of Parshvanatha and Mahavira's teachings, which underlie disputes between the sects.[73][74][75][76] Digambaras maintain that no difference exists between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira.[74] According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavira expanded the scope of Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ahimsa (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy) to the practice of asceticism.[77] Parshvanatha did not require celibacy,[78] and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments.[73][79] Śvētāmbara texts such as section 2.15 of the Acharanga Sutra say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha,[80] linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition.
According to the Śvētāmbara tradition, Parshvanatha and the ascetic community he founded exercised a fourfold restraint; Mahavira stipulated five great vows for his ascetic initiation.[81][82] This difference and its reason have often been discussed in Śvētāmbara texts.[83]
The Uttardhyayana Sutra
According to Wendy Doniger, Parshvanatha allowed monks to wear clothes; Mahavira recommended nude asceticism, a practice which has been a significant difference between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions.[87][88]
According to the Śvētāmbara texts, Parshvanatha's four restraints were ahimsa,
The "less than five vows" view of Śvētāmbara texts is not accepted by the Digambaras, a tradition whose canonical texts have been lost and who do not accept Śvētāmbara texts as canonical.[76] Digambaras have a sizable literature, however, which explains their disagreement with Śvētāmbara interpretations.[76] Prafulla Modi rejects the theory of differences between Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings.[74] Champat Rai Jain writes that Śvētāmbara texts insist on celibacy for their monks (the fifth vow in Mahavira's teachings), and there must not have been a difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira.[90]
Padmanabh Jaini writes that the Digambaras interpret "fourfold" as referring "not to four specific vows", but to "four modalities" (which were adapted by Mahavira into five vows).[91] Western and some Indian scholarship "has been essentially Śvētāmbara scholarship", and has largely ignored Digambara literature related to the controversy about Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings.[91] Paul Dundas writes that medieval Jain literature, such as that by the 9th-century Silanka, suggests that the practices of "not using another's property without their explicit permission" and celibacy were interpreted as part of non-possession.[89]
In literature
The
Pasanaha-chairu is a hagiography of Parshvanatha composed by Shridhara in 1132 AD.[99] Parshvanath bhavaantar is a kirtan (devotion song), compiled by Gangadas in 1690 AD, which narrates life of previous nine births.[100] The medieval forty-four verse hymn Kalyanamandira stotra, composed by Digambar kumudachandra, is a praise to Parshvanatha is popular among both Digambar and Śvētāmbara.[101] Parshvanatha charite is a poem composed by Shantikirt Muni in 1730 AD, this poem narrates the seven siddhis of Parshvanatha.[102]
Guru Gobind Singh wrote a biography of Parshvanatha in the 17th-century Paranath Avtar, part of the Dasam Granth.[103][104]
Iconography
Parshvanatha is a popular tirthankar who is worshiped (bhakti) with Rishabhanatha, Shantinatha, Neminatha and Mahavira.[105][106] He is believed to have the power to remove obstacles and save devotees.[107] In Shvetambara tradition, there are 108 prominent idols of Parshvanath idols these idols derive their name from a geographical region, such as Shankheshwar Parshvanath and Panchasara Parshvanath.[108]
Parshvanatha is usually depicted in a lotus or kayotsarga posture. Statues and paintings show his head shielded by a multi-headed serpent, fanned out like an umbrella. Parshvanatha's snake emblem is carved (or stamped) beneath his legs as an icon identifier. His iconography is usually accompanied by Dharnendra and Padmavati, Jainism's snake god and goddess.[13][69]
Serpent-hood iconography is not unique to Parshvanatha; it is also found above the icons of Suparshvanatha, the seventh of the 24 tirthankaras, but with a small difference.[109] Suparshvanatha's serpent hood has five heads, and a seven (or more)-headed serpent is found in Parshvanatha icons.[110] Statues of both tirthankaras with serpent hoods have been found in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, dating to the 5th to 10th centuries.[111][112] Earliest images of Parshvanatha having seven snakes over his head date back to first century BCE.[110]
Archeological sites and medieval Parshvantha iconography found in temples and caves include scenes and yaksha. Digambara and Śvētāmbara iconography differs; Śvētāmbara art shows Parshvanatha with a serpent hood and a Ganesha-like yaksha, and Digambara art depicts him with serpent hood and Dhranendra.[113][114] According to Umakant Premanand Shah, Hindu gods (such as Ganesha) as yaksha and Indra as serving Parshvanatha, assigned them to a subordinate position.[115]
The Parsvanatha ayagapata, a circa 15 CE ayagapata excavated from Kankali Tila, is a tablet of homage dedicated to Parshvanatha.[116][117] The table represents Parshvanatha in the center surrounded by a bunches of lotus.[118] Parshvanatha is depicted in dhyāna mudrā with ankle crossed in lotus position seated on a pedestal with a seven-hooded sesha hood above his head and shrivatsa on the chest.[20][37][119]
The Kahaum pillar, erected in 460 CE during the reign of Skandagupta, Gupta Empire,[120][121] bears an inscription that is adoration to Arihant and features a carving of Parshvanatha.[122][123][124]
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Mathura art, c. 15 CE
-
Uttar Pradesh, 2nd century (Museum of Oriental Art)
-
Eastern India, 2nd century CE (CSMVS)
-
Parshvanath relief of Kahaum pillar, 5th century
-
5th century (Satna, Madhya Pradesh)
-
6th century, Uttar Pradesh
-
7th-century Akota Bronze (Honolulu Museum of Art)
-
6th-7th century bronze statue in Asian Civilisations Museum
-
9th century - Cleveland Museum of Art
-
10th-century copper, inlaid with silver and gemstones (LACMA)
-
11th century, Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum
-
Karnataka, 12th century (Art Institute of Chicago)
Colossal statues
- The Navagraha Jain Temple has the tallest statue of Parshvanatha: 61 feet (18.6 m), on a 48-foot (14.6-m) pedestal. The statue, in the kayotsarga position, weighs about 185 tons.[125]
- The Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments were built between 1398 and 1536. The largest cross-legged statue of Parshvanatha – 47 feet (14 m) tall and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide – is in one of the caves.[126]
- An 11th-century Parshvanatha basadi in Shravanabelagola enshrines an 18-foot-tall (5.5 m) statue of Parshvanatha in a kayotsarga position.[127]
- Parshvanatha basadi, Halebidu, built by Boppadeva in 1133 AD during the reign of King Vishnuvardhana, contains an 18-foot (5.5 m) black granite kayotsarga statue of Parshvanatha.[128]
- A 31-foot (9.4 m) kayotsarga statue was installed in 2011 at the Vahelna Jain Temple.[129]
- VMC has approved construction of 100 foot tall statue in Sama pond in Vadodara.[130]
-
61 feet (19 m) colossal at Navagraha Jain Temple
-
47 feet (14 m) Parshvanatha statue in lotus position,Gopachal
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31 feet (9.4 m) statue at Vahelna Jain temple
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18 feet (5.5 m) statue at Parshvanatha basadi, Shravanabelgola
-
18 feet (5.5 m) statue atHalebidu
-
16 feet (4.9 m) rock-carved image inside Ellora Jain temple, 1234 CE
Temples
Parshvanatha is one of the five most devotionally revered Tirthankaras, along with Mahavira, Rishabhanatha, Neminatha and Shantinatha.
Important Parshvanatha temple complexes include:
.See also
- Naminath
- Paranath Avtar
Notes
- ^ According to Zimmer, the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra state the twelve householder vows to be: (1) do not kill any being, (2) do not lie, (3) do not use another's property without permission, (4) be chaste, (5) limit your possessions, (6) take a perpetual and daily vow to go only certain distances and take only certain directions, (7) avoid useless talk and action, (8) do not think sinful acts, (9) limit diet and enjoyments, (10) worship at fixed times in the morning, noon and evening, (11) fast on some days and (12) give charity by donating knowledge, money and such every day.[31]
- ^ Jain mythology describes a heavenly being attempting to distract (or harm) Parshvanatha, but the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati guard his journey to omniscience.[44]
- ^ Some texts call the place Mount Sammeta.[49] It is revered in Jainism because 20 of its 24 tirthankars are believed to have attained moksha there.[50]
- ^ The Jataka tales, for example, describe the Buddha's previous lives.[58]
- ^ Also known as Chandraprabha,[63] he also appears in Buddhist and Hindu mythology[64] and is the eighth of twenty-four entities in Jain cosmology.[65]
References
Citations
- ^ Tandon 2002, p. 45.
- ^ Sarasvati 1970, p. 444.
- ^ a b Sangave 2001, p. 128.
- ^ a b c d Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31.
- ^ "Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi". 13 September 2013.
- ^ Heehs 2002, p. 90.
- ^ Jaini 2001, p. 62.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 182–183, 220.
- ^ a b c Dundas 2002, p. 30.
- ^ Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 11.
- ISBN 978-81-8220-113-2.
- ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 30–33.
- ^ a b c d e Britannica 2009.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 183.
- ^ Martin & Runzo 2001, pp. 200–201.
- ^ Dundas 2002, p. 39.
- ^ a b c Dundas 2002, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 83–84.
- ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, pp. 82–85, Quote: "Thus the list of twenty-four Tirthankaras was either already evolved or was in the process of being evolved in the age of the Mathura sculptures in the first three centuries of the Christian era.".
- ^ a b c Vyas 1995, p. 16.
- ^ Vyas 1995, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Jacobi 1964, p. 271.
- ^ Fisher 1997, p. 115.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 184.
- ^ a b Sangave 2001, p. 104.
- ^ Ghatage 1951, p. 411.
- ^ Deo 1954, p. 60.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, pp. 194–196.
- ^ a b Zimmer 1953, p. 196.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 196 with footnote 14.
- ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 208.
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- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 189.
- ^ a b Zimmer 1953, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 107, Quote: In Paimacariyam, Candraprabha is called Sasiprabha".
- ^ Paul Williams 2005, pp. 127–130.
- ^ Coulter 2013, p. 121.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 190.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 191.
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- ^ a b Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 211.
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- ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Doniger 1999, p. 843.
- ^ Long 2009, pp. 62–67.
- ^ a b Dundas 2002, p. 283 with note 30.
- ^ Champat Rai Jain 1939, p. 102–103.
- ^ a b Jaini 2000, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Jacobi 1884.
- ^ Kothary 2015, p. 88.
- ^ Upadhye 2000, p. 46.
- ^ Sangave 2001, p. 201.
- ^ Dalal 2010, p. 754.
- ^ Suriji 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Kelting 2007, p. 130.
- ^ Dehejia 2009, p. 8.
- ^ Datta 1988, p. 1781.
- ^ Orsini & Schofield 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Reddy 2022, p. 232.
- ^ Bhattacharya 2011, p. 270.
- ^ Mansukhani 1993, p. 6.
- ^ a b Dundas 2002, p. 40.
- ^ Cort 2010, pp. 86, 95–98, 132–133.
- ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 33, 40.
- ^ Cort 2001, p. 234.
- ^ Cort 2010, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b Vyas 1995, p. 19.
- ^ Harvard. "From the Harvard Art Museums' collections Tirthankara Suparsvanatha in Kayotsarga, or Standing Meditation, Posture and Protected by a Five-Headed Naga". www.harvardartmuseums.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
- ^ Pal, Huyler & Cort 2016, p. 204.
- ^ Brown 1991, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Pal 1995, p. 87.
- ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, pp. 220–221.
- ^ Quintanilla 2007, p. 201.
- ^ Quintanilla 2007, p. 406.
- ^ Smith 1901, p. 17.
- ^ Quintanilla 2000, p. 106.
- ^ The Asiatic Society 1892, p. 62.
- ^ Vajpeyi 1983, p. 73.
- ^ Bhandarkar 1981, p. 306.
- ^ Deo 1954, p. 103.
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- ^ "Welcome to official website of District Administration Gwalior (M.P.) India". gwalior.nic.in. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ "Shravanabelagola- A Unique Destination". Anand Bharat. 22 October 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
- ^ "Parsvanatha Basti, Halebid". Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
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- ^ Cort 2010, pp. 186.
- ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 187.
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Books
- Clines, Gregory M. (2017), "Pārśvanātha (Jainism)", in Sarao, K. T. S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, ISBN 978-94-024-0851-5
- Deo, S. B. (1954). "The History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 16 (1/4). OCLC 555200984. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- JSTOR 27643255. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2000). "Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology". JSTOR 3249941. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
- Vajpeyi, Raghavendra (1983). "Skandagupta's Bhitari Grant To Visnu-sarngin And Bhitari Excavations". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 44. JSTOR 44139823.
- Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009
- "Vahelna – Jain temple". Government of Uttar Pradesh.
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- "100-feet Parshwanath idol gets Vadodara civic body nod". The Times of India. 27 July 2019.
External links
- Media related to Parshvanatha at Wikimedia Commons