Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis (/ˌpɑːrθɪnoʊˈdʒɛnɪsɪs, -θɪnə-/;[1][2] from the Greek παρθένος, parthénos, 'virgin' + γένεσις, génesis, 'creation'[3]) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of an embryo occur directly from an egg, without need for fertilisation.[4][5] In animals, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell. In plants, parthenogenesis is a component process of apomixis. In algae, parthenogenesis can mean the development of an embryo from either an individual sperm or an individual egg.[4]
Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants,
and birds[10][11][12]). This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice.[13][14]Normal egg cells form in the process of
Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the
Parthenogenesis does not apply to isogamous species.[15]
Life history types
Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the bdelloid rotifers), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy[16][17] or heterogony[18][19]). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season (
Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost the sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes cannot pair for meiosis.
The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as thelytoky (e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as arrhenotoky (e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females, the phenomenon is called deuterotoky.[23]
Types and mechanisms
Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called apomictic parthenogenesis. Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the gametophyte can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are full clones of their mother. Examples include aphids.
Parthenogenesis involving
Automictic
Automixis[24] is a term that covers several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic.[25]
Diploidy might be restored by the doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is referred to as an
Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors, the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined. The criterion for "sexuality" varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis,
The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of automixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis
If terminal fusion (restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous.[32] This is because at anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.
This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother.
Sex of the offspring
In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that the males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO).[33]
When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring will depend on the type of
In polyploid obligate parthenogens, like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female.[28]
In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically.
Facultative
Facultative parthenogenesis is the term for when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction.
In
Facultative parthenogenesis is often used to describe cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals.[37] For example, many cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in
Obligate
Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means.[40] Many species have been shown to transition to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis have been found in numerous metazoan taxa, albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as a result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations.[41] There are a number of documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process.[42] A female will produce an ovum with a full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring.[40]
Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been introduced.[43][44] Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an invasive species: it obviates the need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates; and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly (potentially twice as fast). Examples include several aphid species[43] and the willow sawfly, Nematus oligospilus, which is sexual in its native Holarctic habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into the Southern Hemisphere.[44]
Natural occurrence
Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in
Parthenogenesis is distinct from artificial
Parthenogenesis may be achieved through an artificial process as described below under the discussion of mammals.
Oomycetes
Apomixis can apparently occur in Phytophthora,[50] an oomycete. Oospores from an experimental cross were germinated, and some of the progeny were genetically identical to one or other parent, implying that meiosis did not occur and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis.
Velvet worms
No males of Epiperipatus imthurni have been found, and specimens from Trinidad were shown to reproduce parthenogenetically. This species is the only known velvet worm to reproduce via parthenogenesis.[51]
Rotifers
In
Flatworms
At least two species in the genus
Snails
Several species of parthenogenetic
Insects
Parthenogenesis in insects can cover a wide range of mechanisms.
A related phenomenon, polyembryony is a process that produces multiple clonal offspring from a single egg cell. This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in Strepsiptera.[58]
In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the
In addition to these forms is hermaphroditism, where both the
Parasitic bacteria like Wolbachia have been noted to induce automictic thelytoky in many insect species with haplodiploid systems. They also cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to develop into female offspring.[58]
Among species with the haplo-diploid
A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa,
The workers in five[31] ant species and the queens in some ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis. In Cataglyphis cursor, a European formicine ant, the queens and workers can produce new queens by parthenogenesis. The workers are produced sexually.[31]
In Central and South American
These ants get both the benefits of both asexual and sexual reproduction[31][60]—the daughters who can reproduce (the queens) have all of the mother's genes, while the sterile workers whose physical strength and disease resistance are important are produced sexually.
Other examples of insect parthenogenesis can be found in gall-forming aphids (e.g., Pemphigus betae), where females reproduce parthenogenetically during the gall-forming phase of their life cycle and in grass thrips. In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been, despite the very limited number of species in the genus, several transitions to asexuality.[61]
Crustaceans
Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The
Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis.Spiders
At least two species of spiders in the family Oonopidae (goblin spiders), Heteroonops spinimanus and Triaeris stenaspis, are thought to be parthenogenetic, as no males have ever been collected. Parthenogenetic reproduction has been demonstrated in the laboratory for T. stenaspis.[68]
Sharks
Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in at least three species, the bonnethead,[47] the blacktip shark,[69] and the zebra shark,[70] and reported in others.
A
In the same year, a female Atlantic blacktip shark in Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis.[72] On October 10, 2008, scientists confirmed the second case of a "virgin birth" in a shark. The Journal of Fish Biology reported a study in which scientists said DNA testing proved that a pup carried by a female Atlantic blacktip shark in the Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center contained no genetic material from a male.[69]
In 2002, two
In 2008, a Hungarian aquarium had another case of parthenogenesis after its lone female shark produced a pup without ever having come into contact with a male shark.
The repercussions of parthenogenesis in sharks, which fails to increase the genetic diversity of the offspring, is a matter of concern for shark experts, taking into consideration conservation management strategies for this species, particularly in areas where there may be a shortage of males due to fishing or environmental pressures. Although parthenogenesis may help females who cannot find mates, it does reduce genetic diversity.[citation needed]
In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated in a captive zebra shark, a type of carpet shark.[70][74] DNA genotyping demonstrated that individual zebra sharks can switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction.[75]
Rays
A female round stingray (Urobatis halleri) held in captivity from all males for eight years was reported pregnant in 2024.[76]
Amphibians
Crocodiles
In June 2023, discovery was made at a zoo in Costa Rica, where researchers identified the first documented case of a self-pregnant crocodile. This female American crocodile, housed at Parque Reptilania, produced a genetically identical foetus, with a 99.9% similarity to herself. The scientists speculate that this unique ability might be inherited from an evolutionary ancestor, suggesting that even dinosaurs could have possessed the capability for self-reproduction. The 18-year-old crocodile laid the egg in January 2018, the fully formed foetus did not hatch and was stillborn. Notably, this crocodile had been kept separated from other crocodiles throughout her entire life since being acquired at the age of two.[77][78]
Squamata
Most reptiles of the squamatan order (lizards and snakes) reproduce sexually, but parthenogenesis has been observed to occur naturally in certain species of whiptails, some geckos, rock lizards,[7][79][80] Komodo dragons,[81] and snakes.[82] Some of these like the
In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers.[91] The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis.[92] A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event,[93] highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis.[37]
Some reptile species use a ZW chromosome system, which produces either males (ZZ) or females (ZW). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female offspring with WW chromosomes.[94]
Parthenogenesis has been studied extensively in the
An interesting aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that mating behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One female plays the role played by the male in closely related species, and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the hormonal cycles of the females, which cause them to behave like males shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, and to take the female role in mating before laying eggs, when estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courtship ritual have greater fecundity than those kept in isolation, due to the increase in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for maximum reproductive success.[96]
Some lizard parthenogens show a pattern of geographic parthenogenesis, occupying high mountain areas where their ancestral forms have an inferior competition ability.[97] In Caucasian rock lizards of genus Darevskia, which have six parthenogenetic forms of hybrid origin[79][80][98] hybrid parthenogenetic form D. "dahli" has a broader niche than either of its bisexual ancestors and its expansion throughout the Central Lesser Caucasus caused decline of the ranges of both its maternal and paternal species.[99]
Birds
Parthenogenesis in birds is known mainly from studies of
Parthenogenesis in turkeys appears to result from a conversion of
In 2021, the San Diego Zoo reported that they had two unfertilized eggs from their California condor breeding program hatch. This is the first known example of parthenogenesis in this species, as well as one of the only known examples of parthenogenesis happening where males are still present.[11]
Mammals
There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild. Parthenogenetic progeny of mammals would have two X chromosomes, and would therefore be genetically female.
In 1936,
In April 2004, scientists at Tokyo University of Agriculture used parthenogenesis successfully to create a fatherless mouse. Using gene targeting, they were able to manipulate two imprinted loci H19/IGF2 and DLK1/MEG3 to produce bi-maternal mice at high frequency[104] and subsequently show that fatherless mice have enhanced longevity.[105]
Induced parthenogenesis in mice and monkeys often results in abnormal development. This is because mammals have imprinted genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring in order for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental abnormalities. It has been suggested[106] that defects in
Methods
This article may be too technical for most readers to understand.(December 2021) |
Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring.[107]
During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis.
To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B.[108] As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote[106] Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.[106]
Humans
Reports of human parthenogenesis have famously existed since ancient times, featuring prominently in Christianity and various other religions. More recently, Helen Spurway, a geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the guppy (Lebistes reticulatus), claimed in 1955 that parthenogenesis, which occurs in the guppy in nature, may also occur (though very rarely) in the human species, leading to so-called "virgin births". This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike.[109] Sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilisation, but it cannot fully develop on its own; so while it may create some skin and nerve cells, it cannot create others (such as skeletal muscle) and becomes a type of benign tumor called an ovarian teratoma.[110] Spontaneous ovarian activation is not rare and has been known about since the 19th century. Some teratomas can even become primitive fetuses (fetiform teratoma) with imperfect heads, limbs and other structures, but are non-viable.
In 1995, there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis; a boy was found to have some of his cells (such as white blood cells) to be lacking in any genetic content from his father. Scientists believe that an unfertilised egg began to self-divide but then had some (but not all) of its cells fertilised by a sperm cell; this must have happened early in development, as self-activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilised. The unfertilised cells eventually duplicated their DNA, boosting their chromosomes to 46. When the unfertilised cells hit a developmental block, the fertilised cells took over and developed that tissue. The boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but was otherwise healthy. This would make him a parthenogenetic chimera (a child with two cell lineages in his body).[111] While over a dozen similar cases have been reported since then (usually discovered after the patient demonstrated clinical abnormalities), there have been no scientifically confirmed reports of a non-chimeric, clinically healthy human parthenote (i.e. produced from a single, parthenogenetic-activated oocyte).[110]
On June 26, 2007, the International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California-based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis. The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular female for the treatment of degenerative diseases that might affect her. In December 2007, Dr. Revazova and ISCC published an article
On August 2, 2007, after an independent investigation, it was revealed that discredited South Korean scientist
Similar phenomena
Gynogenesis
A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the presence of
Hybridogenesis
Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of
So hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: half of genome is passed to the next generation clonally, unrecombined, intact (B), other half sexually, recombined (A).[116][119]
This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's side and has half new genetic material from the father's side.
This form of reproduction is seen in some live-bearing fish of the genus Poeciliopsis[117][120] as well as in some of the Pelophylax spp. ("green frogs" or "waterfrogs"):
and perhaps in P. demarchii.
Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e.
- Iberian minnow Tropidophoxinellus alburnoides (Squalius pyrenaicus × hypothetical ancestor related with Anaecypris hispanica)[124]
- spined loaches Cobitis hankugensis × C. longicorpus[125]
- Bacillus stick insects B. rossius × Bacillus grandii benazzii[126]
See also
- Androgenesis - a form of quasi-sexual reproduction in which a male is the sole source of the nuclear genetic material in the embryo
- Telescoping generations
- Charles Bonnet – Genevan botanist (1720–1793) – conducted experiments that established what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids
- bees
- Jacques Loeb – German-born American physiologist and biologist – caused the eggs of sea urchins to begin embryonic development without sperm
- Miraculous births – Conceptions and births by miraculous circumstances
- Parthenocarpy – Production of seedless fruit without fertilisation – plants with seedless fruit
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Further reading
- Dawley, Robert M. & Bogart, James P. (1989). Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates. Albany: New York State Museum. ISBN 1-55557-179-4.
- Fangerau, H (2005). "Can artificial parthenogenesis sidestep ethical pitfalls in human therapeutic cloning? An historical perspective". Journal of Medical Ethics. 31 (12): 733–735. PMID 16319240.
- Futuyma, Douglas J. & Slatkin, Montgomery. (1983). Coevolution. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-228-3.
- Hore, T; Rapkins, R; Graves, J (2007). "Construction and evolution of imprinted loci in mammals". Trends in Genetics. 23 (9): 440–448. PMID 17683825.
- Kono, T.; Obata, Y.; Wu, Q.; Niwa, K.; Ono, Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Park, E.S.; Seo, J.-S.; Ogawa, H. (2004). "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood". Nature. 428 (6985): 860–864. S2CID 4353479.
- Maynard Smith, John. (1978). The Evolution of Sex. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29302-2.
- Michod, Richard E. & Levin, Bruce R. (1988). The Evolution of Sex. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-459-6.
- Schlupp, Ingo (2005). "The Evolutionary Ecology of Gynogenesis". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 36: 399–417. .
- Simon, J; Rispe, Claude; Sunnucks, Paul (2002). "Ecology and evolution of sex in aphids". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 17: 34–39. .
- Stearns, Stephan C. (1988). The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences (Experientia Supplementum, Vol. 55). Boston: Birkhauser. ISBN 0-8176-1807-4.
External links
- Reproductive behavior in whiptails at Crews Laboratory
- Types of asexual reproduction
- Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs from Oregon State University
- National Geographic News: Virgin Birth Expected at Christmas – By Komodo Dragon
- "'Virgin births' for giant lizards (Komodo dragon)" BBC News
- Reuther: Komodo dragon proud mum (and dad) of five
- Female sharks capable of virgin birth
- Scientists confirm shark's ‘virgin birth’ Article by Steve Szkotak AP updated 1:49 a.m. ET, Fri., October 10, 2008