Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity

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)
letters to a secretary (e.g., Romans 16:22
).

Since the 1970s, scholars have sought to place Paul the Apostle within his historical context in Second Temple Judaism.[1] Paul's relationship to Judaism involves topics including the status of Israel's covenant with God and the role of works as a means to either gain or keep the covenant.[2]

The inclusion of

separation of early Christianity from Judaism.[2][3]

Overview

In Paul's thinking, instead of humanity divided as "Israel and the nations" which is the classic understanding of Judaism, we have "Israel after the flesh" (i.e., the Jewish people), non-Jews whom he calls "the nations," (i.e., Gentiles) and a new people called "the church of God" made of all those whom he designates as "in Christ" (1 Corinthians 10:32).

— James Tabor, Huffington Post[7]

Paul's influence on Christian thinking is considered to be more significant than that of any other

New Testament author.[3] According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role, and salvation by faith, is not the individual conscience of human sinners, and their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the problem of the inclusion of Gentile (Greek) Torah-observers into God's covenant.[8][9][10][web 1][note 1]

Paul draws on several interpretative frames to solve this problem, but most importantly, his own experience and understanding.[11] The kerygma from 1 Corinthians 15:3–5 refers to two mythologies: the Greek myth of the noble dead, to which the Maccabean notion of martyrdom and dying for one's people is related; and the Jewish myth of the persecuted sage or righteous man, c.q.[definition needed] the "story of the child of wisdom."[12][13] The notion of 'dying for' refers to this martyrdom and persecution.[14][note 2] 'Dying for our sins' refers to the problem of Gentile Torah-observers, who, despite their faithfulness, are not Jewish by birth, and are therefore 'sinners', excluded from God's covenant.[15] Jesus' death and resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the Gentiles from God's covenant, as indicated by Romans 3:21–26.[16][17]

The inclusion of Gentiles into Judaism posed a problem for the Jewish-Christian identity of some of the

Abrahamic covenant, and the most traditionalist faction of Jewish Christians (i.e., converted Pharisees) insisted that Gentile converts had to be circumcised as well.[21][3][18][19][20] Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments,[3] considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Jesus.[19][22] According to Paula Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcision for Gentiles is in line with the Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), not as proselytes to Israel."[web 4] For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions.[web 4] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right", who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations (Romans 11:25)."[web 4]

For Paul, the sacrifice of Jesus solved the problem of the exclusion of Gentiles from God's covenant,

Roman Judea", which makes it likely that his Christology was in line with, and indebted to, their views.[24] Hurtado further notes that "[i]t is widely accepted that the tradition that Paul recites in 1 Corinthians 15:1–17 must go back to the Jerusalem Church."[25]

New Perspective on Paul

Main article: New Perspective on Paul

Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification
into serious question.

Sanders' publications, such as Paul and Palestinian Judaism in 1977 and Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People in 1983, have since been taken up by Professor James D. G. Dunn, who coined the phrase "New Perspective on Paul";[1][27] and by N. T. Wright,[28] then Anglican bishop of Durham. Wright notes the apparent discrepancy between Romans and Galatians, the former being much more positive about the continuing covenantal relationship between God and his ancient people than the latter. Wright contends therefore that works are not insignificant.[29] According to Wright, Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity, and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.

Within the last three decades, a number of theologians have put forward other "New Perspectives" on Paul's doctrine of justification, and even more specifically on what he says about

justification by faith. According to Simon Gathercole, "Justification by faith" means God accepts Gentiles in addition to Jews, since both believe in God. Paul writes in his letter to the Romans, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law. Is God the God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, of Gentiles too, since there is only one God, who will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through that same faith".[30] Faith is the central component of Paul's doctrine of justification — meaning that Gentiles don't need to become Israelites when they convert to Christianity, because God is not just the God of one nation, but Gentile and Jew alike.[31]

Sources

See also: Luke–Acts

The

2nd century was the first of record to quote Acts, and he used it against Marcion of Sinope, who rejected the Hebrew Bible entirely (see also Marcionism
).

Paul's background

Jewish background

Rome
in the upper-left.
Main article: Paul the Apostle § Biography
See also:
Cultural and historical background of Jesus, and Zealots § Paul the Apostle

Paul was from a devout Jewish family based in the city of Tarsus,[33] one of the largest trade centers on the Mediterranean coast.[34] It had been in existence several hundred years prior to his birth. It was renowned for its university. During the time of Alexander the Great, who died in 323 BC, Tarsus was the most influential city in Asia Minor.[33]

Paul's family had a history of religious piety (2 Timothy 1:3).

letter to the Philippians
:

If anyone else has reason to be confident in the flesh, I have more: circumcised on the eighth day, a member of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew born of Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee; as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to righteousness under the law, blameless.

— Philippians 3:4–6

While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive rabbinical education at the school of Gamaliel,[43][44][45] one of the most noted rabbis in history. Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem, since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.[46][47] Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen,[48] a Hellenised diaspora Jew.[49]

Although we know from his biography and from Acts that Paul could speak

Hebrew,[47] modern scholarship suggests that Koine Greek was his first language.[50][51] In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.[52]

Greek background

Alexander's empire, c. 334–323 BC, stretching east and south of Macedonia
.
See also:
Greek culture

Hellenistic Judaism was a movement which existed in the

Philo of Alexandria (died c. 50 AD), Josephus (died c.100 AD), and some would claim also Paul.[53] The decline of Hellenistic Judaism in the 2nd century AD is obscure. It may be that it was marginalized by, absorbed into, or became Early Christianity
.

Recently,

Greek philosophy to reinterpret the Hebrew Bible in terms of the Platonic
opposition between the ideal (which is real) and the material (which is false).

Gentiles and circumcision

Further information: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity

Before

Christ (see also Faith or Faithfulness) was sufficient for salvation, therefore the Mosaic Law wasn't binding for the Gentiles.[55][56][57][58]

Paul's conversion

The

conversion, Paul was a Pharisee
who "violently persecuted" the followers of Jesus.

You have heard, no doubt, of my earlier life in Judaism. I was violently persecuting the church of God and was trying to destroy it. I advanced in Judaism beyond many among my people of the same age, for I was far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors.

— Galatians 1:13—14

Pillars of the Church

Galatians 1:15–17 says that after God "called me...so that I might proclaim him among the Gentiles", he "did not confer with any human being". When he was in

James the Lord’s brother[59] and Galatians 2:1–2
says he did not explain "the gospel that I proclaim among the Gentiles" to "the acknowledged leaders" until 14 years later in a subsequent trip to Jerusalem.

Proselytizing among Jews

According to Acts, Paul began working along the traditional Jewish line of proselytizing in the various synagogues where the proselytes of the gate and the Jews met; and only because he failed to win the Jews to his views, encountering strong opposition and persecution from them, did he turn to the Gentile world after he had agreed at a convention with the apostles at Jerusalem to admit the Gentiles into the Church only as proselytes of the gate, that is, after their acceptance of the Noachian laws.[60][61]

In Galatians 1:17–18, Paul declares that, immediately after his conversion, he went away into Arabia, and again returned to Damascus. "Then after three years, I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas". In Acts, no mention is made of Paul's journey into Arabia; and the journey to Jerusalem is placed immediately after the notice of Paul's preaching in the synagogues.

Weizäcker, Weiss
, and others allege here a contradiction between the writer of the Acts and Paul.

Rabbi

laws of Moses and the Sabbath.[citation needed
]

Persecution of Paul by Jews in Acts

Main article: Persecution of Christians in the New Testament

Several passages in Acts describe Paul's missions to

Thessalonica, the Jews again incited the crowds and pitted the Christians against the Roman authority.[66]

Circumcision controversy

Cathedral of Chartres
.

Paul, who called himself "Apostle to the Gentiles",

Jewish Christian but whose father was a Greek, Paul personally circumcised him "because of the Jews" that were in town.[69][70] Some believe that he appeared to praise its value in Romans 3:1–2, yet later in Romans 2 we see his point. In 1 Corinthians 9:20–23
he also disputes the value of circumcision.

Paul made his case to the Christians at Rome

epispasm.[55][57][72][73][74][75][76] Paul was already circumcised at the time of his conversion. He added: "Is any called in uncircumcision? Let him not be circumcised", and went on to argue that circumcision didn't matter:[55][56][57][58] "Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is nothing. Keeping God's commands is what counts."[77]

Rembrandt: The Apostle Paul, circa 1657 (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.)

Later Paul more explicitly denounced the practice, rejecting and condemning those

Justification by faith, Pauline passages supporting antinomianism, Abrogation of Old Covenant laws
).

His attitude towards circumcision varies between his outright hostility to what he calls "mutilation" in Philippians 3:2–3 to praise in Romans 3:1–2. However, such apparent discrepancies have led to a degree of skepticism about the

Schleiermacher, Bleek, Krenkel, and others have opposed the authenticity of the Acts; an objection is drawn from the discrepancy between Acts 9:19–28 and Gal. 1:17–19. Some believe that Paul wrote the entire Epistle to the Galatians attacking circumcision, saying in chapter five: "Behold, I Paul say unto you, if ye be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing."[84]

The division between the Jews who followed the Mosaic Law and were circumcised and the Gentiles who were uncircumcised was highlighted in his Epistle to the Galatians:

On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, just as Peter had been entrusted with the gospel for the circumcised (for he who worked through Peter making him an apostle to the circumcised also worked through me in sending me to the Gentiles), and when James and

right hand of fellowship, agreeing that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised.

— Galatians 2:7–9

Views on Judaizers

Main article: Judaizers

The

doctrinal errors.[4][5][6]

Paul was severely critical of the Judaizers within the

World to Come (see also Noahidism and Dual-covenant theology
).

Council of Jerusalem

Main article: Council of Jerusalem

Paul seems to have refused "to be tied down to particular patterns of behavior and practice."[1] 1 Cor. 9:20–23 He does not engage in a dispute with those Corinthians who apparently feel quite free to eat anything offered to idols, never appealing or even mentioning the Jerusalem council. He rather attempts to persuade them by appealing to the care they should have for other believers who might not feel so free.

Paul himself described several meetings with the

Cephas and John. He describes this as a "private meeting" (not a public council) and notes that Titus, who was Greek, wasn't pressured to be circumcised.Gal. 2:3 [2] However, he refers to "false believers secretly brought in, who slipped in to spy on the freedom[3] we have in Christ Jesus, so that they might enslave us."Gal. 2:4

Paul claims the "pillars" of the Church[88] had no differences with him. On the contrary, they gave him the "right hand of fellowship", he bound for the mission to "the uncircumcised" and they to "the circumcised", requesting only that he remember the "poor"[4]. Whether this was the same meeting as that described in Acts is not universally agreed.

According to an article in the

Jewish Encyclopedia, great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities in Jerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into the church, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, it was agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws — namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry, fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal — should be demanded of the heathen desirous of entering the Church.[89]

Since

James the brother of John
might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]

— James D. G. Dunn. "The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, p. 577

Incident at Antioch

Main article:
The Incident at Antioch
Rembrandt's Two old men disputing, 1628. This painting has been thought to depict Peter and Paul.[90]

Despite the agreement presumably achieved at the Council of Jerusalem as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in

Antioch.[91]

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[92] Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his travelling companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.[93]

The outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia states: "St. Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that St. Peter saw the justice of the rebuke."[94] In contrast, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity states: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."[95]

The primary source for the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.[96]

Jews depicted as killers of Jesus

As noted by New Testament scholar

Jews of killing Jesus and the prophets in 1 Thessalonians 2:14–16
:

For you, brothers and sisters, became imitators of the churches of God in Christ Jesus in Judea, for you suffered the same things from your own compatriots as they did from the Jews, who killed both the Lord Jesus and the prophets and drove us out; they displease God and oppose everyone by hindering us from speaking to the Gentiles so that they may be saved. Thus they have been constantly filling up the measure of their sins; but God's wrath has overtaken them at last.

James P. Carroll
, historian and former Catholic priest, cautions that this and similar statements in the Gospels of Matthew and John are properly viewed as "evidence not of Jew hatred but of sectarian conflicts among Jews" in the early years of the Christian church. [97]

Separation with Judaism

Main article:
Split of early Christianity and Judaism

Paul's theology of the gospel contributed to the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that faith in Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent. Without Paul's campaign against the legalists who opposed him, Christianity may have remained a dissenting sect within Judaism.[98]

He argued that Gentile converts did not need to follow Jewish customs, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic law in order to have a share in the world to come. Teaching them to forsake idolatry for

old and the new way of salvation has usually been weakened, with an emphasis on smooth development (Supersessionism) rather than stark contrast (Marcionism).[citation needed] See also New Perspective on Paul
.

(see also Antinomianism in the New Testament and Abrogation of Old Covenant laws)

Pauline Christianity

Main article: Pauline Christianity

Pauline Christianity is a term used to refer to a branch of Early Christianity associated with the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul the Apostle through his writings. The term is generally considered a pejorative by some who believe it carries the implication that Christianity as it is known is a corruption of the original teachings of Jesus, as in the doctrine of the Great Apostasy.

Jewish views

Jewish historical reconstructions

Jewish interest in Paul is a recent phenomenon. Before the so-called

Leo Shestov, and Jacob Taubes)[105] and Jewish psychoanalysts (including Sigmund Freud and Hanns Sachs)[106] have engaged with the apostle as one of the most influential figures in Western thought. Scholarly surveys of Jewish interest in Paul include those by Hagner (1980),[107] Meissner (1996),[108] and Langton (2010, 2011).[109][110][111]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Dunn quotes Stendahl: "Cf Stendahl, Paul among Jews and Gentiles, passim-e.g "... a doctrine of faith was hammered out by Paul for the very specific and limited pupose of defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promise of God to Israel"(p.2)"[9]

    Stephen Westerholm: "For Paul, the question that "justification by faith" was intended to answer was, "On what terms can Gentiles gain entrance to the people of God?" Bent on denying any suggestion that Gentiles must become Jews and keep the Jewish law, he answered, "By faith—and not by works of the (Jewish) law"."[web 1] Westerholm refers to: Krister Stendahl, The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West, Harvard Theological Review 56 (1963), 199–215; reprinted in Stendahl, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles and Other Essays (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976), 78–96.

    Westerholm quotes Sanders: "Sanders noted that "the salvation of the Gentiles is essential to Paul's preaching; and with it falls the law; for, as Paul says simply, Gentiles cannot live by the law (Gal. 2.14)" (496). On a similar note, Sanders suggested that the only Jewish "boasting" to which Paul objected was that which exulted over the divine privileges granted to Israel and failed to acknowledge that God, in Christ, had opened the door of salvation to Gentiles."
  2. ^ According to the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), "The Mishnah says that sins are expiated (1) by sacrifice, (2) by repentance at death or on Yom Kippur, (3) in the case of the lighter transgressions of the positive or negative precepts, by repentance at any time [...] The graver sins, according to Rabbi, are apostasy, heretical interpretation of the Torah, and non-circumcision (Yoma 86a). The atonement for sins between a man and his neighbor is an ample apology (Yoma 85b)."[web 2]


    The Jewish Encyclopedia further writes: "Most efficacious seemed to be the atoning power of suffering experienced by the righteous during the Exile. This is the idea underlying the description of the suffering servant of God in Isa. liii. 4, 12, Hebr. [...] of greater atoning power than all the Temple sacrifices was the suffering of the elect ones who were to be servants and witnesses of the Lord (Isa. xlii. 1–4, xlix. 1–7, l. 6). This idea of the atoning power of the suffering and death of the righteous finds expression also in IV Macc. vi. 27, xvii. 21–23; M. Ḳ. 28a; Pesiḳ. xxvii. 174b; Lev. R. xx.; and formed the basis of Paul's doctrine of the atoning blood of Christ (Rom. iii. 25)."[web 3]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Dunn 1990, pp. 1–7.
  2. ^
    ISBN 9781032199344
    .
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Cross & Livingstone 2005, pp. 1243–5.
  4. ^
    JSTOR 3267745
    .
  5. ^
    JSTOR 24735868
    .
  6. ^ a b c d Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 912.
  7. ^ Tabor, James (November 16, 2013). "Paul the Jew as Founder of Christianity?". Huffington Post. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
  8. ^ Stendahl 1963.
  9. ^ a b Dunn 1982, p. n.49.
  10. ^ Finlan 2001, p. 2.
  11. ^ Karkkainen 2016, p. 30.
  12. ^ Mack 1995, p. 86=87.
  13. ^ Finlan 2004, p. 4.
  14. ^ Mack 1997, p. 88.
  15. ^ Mack 1997, p. 88-89, 92.
  16. ^ a b Mack 1997, pp. 91–92.
  17. ^ a b Cross & Livingstone 2005, pp. 1244–5.
  18. ^ a b Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 19–21.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Hurtado 2005, pp. 162–165.
  20. ^ a b McGrath 2006, pp. 174–175.
  21. ^ Acts 15:1
  22. ^ McGrath 2006, pp. 174–176.
  23. S2CID 191738355
    .
  24. ^ Hurtado 2005, pp. 156–157.
  25. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 168.
  26. ISBN 0-8006-1899-8
  27. BJRL
    65 (1983), 95–122.
  28. ^ New Perspectives on Paul
  29. ^ Romans 2:13
  30. ^ Romans 3:28–30
  31. ^ Gathercole Simon, "What Did Paul Really Mean?" (Christianity Today, 2007)
  32. ^ Acts 15:36–41
  33. ^ a b Wright, G. Ernest, Great People of the Bible and How They Lived, (Pleasantville, New York: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1974).
  34. ^ Montague, George T. The Living Thought of St. Paul, Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co. 1966.
  35. ^ 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death.
  36. ^ Philippians 3:5–6
  37. ^ Acts 23:6
  38. ^ Dunn 2003, p. 22.
  39. ^ Acts 18:1–3
  40. ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 41–42.
  41. ^ Acts 18:3
  42. ^ Rom. 16:4
  43. ^ Acts 22:3
  44. ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 21–22.
  45. ^ McRay 2003, p. 44.
  46. ^ Acts 23:16
  47. ^ a b Dunn 2003, p. 21.
  48. ^ Acts 7:58–60; 22:20
  49. ^ Dunn 2009.
  50. ^ Frederick Fyvie Bruce (1977), Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free, p. 43
  51. ^ Dale Martin (2009), Introduction to New Testament History and Literature, lecture 14: "Paul as Missionary". Yale University.
  52. ^ Lee 2006, pp. 13–26.
  53. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus: Not a Hebrew Scholar; a Hellenist
  54. S2CID 161369763
    .
  55. ^
    ISBN 978-3-16-149518-2
    . Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  56. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-027175-6
    . Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  57. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-063664-7
    . Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  58. ^
    ISBN 978-0-300-19051-9
    .
  59. ^ Gal 1:18–24
  60. ^ Acts 15:1–31
  61. ^ "Jewish Encyclopedia article". Archived from the original on 2008-04-12. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
  62. ^ pp. 32b–34b, Hamburg, 1752
  63. ^ Acts 14:19
  64. ^ Acts 16:19–40
  65. ^ 1 Cor. 9:20–23
  66. ^ Acts 17:6–8
  67. S2CID 242771713
    .
  68. ^ Galatians 1:15–16, 2:7–9; Romans 11:13; 1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11.
  69. ^ Acts 16:1–3
  70. ^ a b McGarvey on Acts 16: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this 'on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters.'"
  71. ^ Romans 2:25–29
  72. S2CID 29580193
    . Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  73. PMID 6994325
    . Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  74. PMID 9623850
    . Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  75. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Circumcision: "To this epispastic operation performed on the athletes to conceal the marks of circumcision St. Paul alludes, me epispastho."
  76. ^ 1 Cor. 7:18
  77. ^ 1 Cor. 7:19
  78. ^ Gal. 3:3
  79. ^ Gal. 2:4
  80. ^ Gal 6:12
  81. ^ Gal. 3:13
  82. ^ a b McGrath 2006, pp. 175–176.
  83. ^ For example, see Catholic Encyclopedia (1907–1914): Acts of the Apostles: Objections Against the Authenticity
  84. ^ Gal. 5:2
  85. ^ Acts 15:1–35
  86. ^ Acts 15:20,29
  87. ^ Genesis 9:1–17
  88. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: St. James the Less: "Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul, three years after his conversion (A.D. 37), went up to Jerusalem. ... On the same occasion, the "pillars" of the Church, James, Peter, and John "gave to me (Paul) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the circumcision".Gal. 2:9
  89. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah
  90. ^ Perkin, Corrie (2006-02-25). "Oh! We've lent the Rembrandt". The Age. Fairfax. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
  91. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"
  92. ^ Gal. 2:11–14
  93. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten with the Gentiles, "withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision," and by his example drew with him not only the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer."
  94. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia St. Paul's account
  95. ISBN 0-06-052655-6
    .
  96. ^ Gal. 2:11–14
  97. ISBN 0-395-77927-8
    .
  98. Harris, Stephen L.
    , Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. p. 331
  99. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 23–56
  100. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 57–96
  101. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 97–153
  102. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 154–176
  103. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 178–209
  104. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 210–230
  105. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 234–262
  106. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 263–278
  107. ^ Hagner, Donald (1980). Hagner, Donald (ed.). Paul in Modern Jewish Thought in Pauline Studies. Exeter: Paternoster Press. pp. 143–65.
  108. ^ Meissner, Stefan (1996). Die Heimholung des Ketzers. Tübingen: Mohr.
  109. ^ Langton (2010)
  110. ^ Langton, Daniel (2011). Westerholm, Stephen (ed.). Jewish Readings of Paul in Blackwell Companion to Paul. Blackwell. pp. 55–72.
  111. ^ Langton, Daniel (2011). Levine, Amy-Jill (ed.). Paul in Jewish Thought in The Jewish Annotated New Testament. Oxford University Press. pp. 585–87.

Sources

Printed sources

Web sources

  1. ^ a b Stephen Westerholm (2015), The New Perspective on Paul in Review, Direction, Spring 2015, Vol. 44 (No. 1), pp. 4–15.
  2. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, SIN
  3. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), ATONEMENT
  4. ^ a b c Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018), “When Christians were Jews”: Paula Fredriksen on “The First Generation”

External links

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