Pax Romana
The Pax Romana (
During this period of about two centuries,[2] the Roman Empire achieved its greatest territorial extent in AD 117 (Emperor Trajan), and its population reached a maximum of up to 70 million people, which was around 33% of the world's population.[3] According to Cassius Dio, the dictatorial reign of Commodus, later followed by the Year of the Five Emperors and the Crisis of the Third Century, marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust".[4]
Overview
The Pax Romana, spanning from 27 BC to 180 AD, stands as one of the most enduring periods of peace in the annals of civilization. However, Walter Goffart wrote: "The volume of the Cambridge Ancient History for the years AD 70–192 is called 'The Imperial Peace', but peace is not what one finds in its pages".[5] Arthur M. Eckstein writes that the period must be seen in contrast to the much more frequent warfare in the Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Eckstein also notes that the incipient Pax Romana appeared during the Republic, and that its temporal span varied with geographical region as well: "Although the standard textbook dates for the Pax Romana, the famous 'Roman Peace' in the Mediterranean, are 31 BC to AD 250, the fact is that the Roman Peace was emerging in large regions of the Mediterranean at a much earlier date: Sicily after 210 [BC], the Italian Peninsula after 200 [BC]; the Po Valley after 190 [BC]; most of the Iberian Peninsula after 133 [BC]; North Africa after 100 [BC]; and for ever longer stretches of time in the Greek East."[6]
The first known record of the term Pax Romana appears in a writing by Seneca the Younger in AD 55.[7] The concept was highly influential, and the subject of theories and attempts to copy it in subsequent ages. Arnaldo Momigliano noted that "Pax Romana is a simple formula for propaganda, but a difficult subject for research."[8]
The Pax Romana began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated
Augustus faced a problem making peace an acceptable mode of life for the Romans, who had been at war with one power or another continuously for 200 years.[12][page needed] Romans regarded peace not as an absence of war, but as a rare situation which existed when all opponents had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist.[8] Augustus' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana.[12]
After Augustus' death in AD 14, most of his successors as Roman emperors continued his politics. The last five emperors of the Pax Romana are known as the "
Influence on trade
Roman trade in the Mediterranean increased during the Pax Romana. Romans sailed East to acquire silks, gems, onyx and spices. Romans benefited from large profits and incomes in the Roman empire were raised due to trade in the Mediterranean.[14][15]
As the Pax Romana of the western world by Rome was largely contemporaneous to the Pax Sinica of the eastern world by Han China,[16][17] long-distance travel and trade in Eurasian history was significantly stimulated during these eras.[17]
Pax imperia: analogous peaces
The prominence of the concept of the Pax Romana led to historians coining variants of the term to describe other systems of relative peace that have been established, attempted, or argued to have existed. Some variants include:[1]
- Pax Americana
- Pax Assyriaca
- Pax Atomica
- Pax Britannica
- Pax Europaea
- Pax Guptana
- Pax Hispanica
- Pax Khazarica
- Pax Kushana
- Pax Mafiosa (Pax Narcotica)
- Pax Mongolica
- Pax Ottomana
- Pax Porfiriana
- Pax Sinica
- Pax Sovietica
- Pax Syriana
- Pax Tokugawana
More generically, the concept has been referred to as pax imperia
The concept of Pax Romana was highly influential, and there were attempts to imitate it in the
See also
References
- ^ a b c "Pax Romana". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 23 February 2024.
- ISBN 978-1-5072-0454-2.
- ^ a b c "The Pax Romana". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved 2017-02-10.
- ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary
- ISBN 978-1-85285-001-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-5720-2.
- ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2.
- ^ S2CID 195009430.
- ISBN 978-1-5760-7075-8.
- Gates of Janus).
- JSTOR 4238621.
- ^ ]
- ^ Sir Ronald Syme had suggested a later date (but Rome was then at war).
- OCLC 784708336.
- OCLC 941874968.
- ISBN 9788120804562.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-93735-1.
- ISBN 978-9956-616-12-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8232-5501-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8262-1518-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7658-0504-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8179-8093-1.
- ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2.
- ISBN 978-1-58477-178-4.
- ^ The imperial peace: an ideal in European history. Oxford, The Clarendon Press. 1913 – via Internet Archive.
Further reading
- Burton, Paul. 2011. "Pax Romana/Pax Americana: Perceptions of Rome in American Political Culture, 2000–2010". International Journal of Classical Tradition 18.1:66–104. JSTOR 41474687.
- Cornwell, Hannah. 2017. Pax and the Politics of Peace: Republic to Principate. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
- Galinsky, Karl. 2012. Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Goldsworthy, Adrian. 2016. Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Hardwick, Lorna. 2000. "Concepts of Peace". In Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire, edited by Janet Huskinson, 335–368. London: Routledge.
- Lopez, Gennaro. 2002. "Pax Romana/Pax Augusta". Invigilata Lucernis 24: 97–110.
- Stern, Gaius. 2015. "The New Cult of Pax Augusta 13 BC–AD 14". Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 55.1–4: 1–16.
- Yannakopulos, Nikos. 2003. "Preserving the Pax Romana: The Peace Functionaries in Roman East". Mediterraneo Antico 6.2: 825–905.